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The SAT Reasoning Test, formerly called the Scholastic Aptitude Test and Scholastic Assessment Test, is a type of standardized test frequently used by colleges and universities in the United States to aid in the selection of incoming students. In the U.S., the SAT is administered by the private Educational Testing Service (ETS) and is developed, published, and scored by the College Board. In many areas of the United States, the ACT is given in place of the SAT and is considered just as valid in assessing academic performance.

Function

Unlike many other countries' education systems, there are substantial differences in teaching methods and curriculum among U.S. secondary schools, both in regard to high schools in separate states and between high schools in the same state. The variability results largely from the American principle of federalism, whereby local jurisdictions have most of the control over school systems, and the tax system in the U.S., in which school districts are funded locally as well. Wealthier jurisdictions enjoy higher tax revenue, and as a result their public schools are better funded.^{[citation needed]}

These differences make it difficult for universities to compare prospective students in an effort to identify and admit the most deserving and promising candidates. In the absence of centralized secondary education school exit exams (such as the French Baccalauréat, Irish Leaving Certificate, or English A-levels), there is a need in the U.S. for some sort of standardized tests. U.S. universities use tests such as the SAT and the ACT as a way of assessing students coming from schools using different class ranking or grading systems or in schools with no grades at all.

The tests are generally taken by high school students or graduates wishing to progress to higher education, though they are available to anyone. Test results of applicants are provided to colleges and universities identified by the student. Although admission criteria to these universities usually also include GPA, teacher recommendations, and participation in extracurricular activities, some colleges have a threshold score that automatically qualifies or disqualifies a candidate for admission. Scores on the SAT are also sometimes used as a criterion for the awarding of academic scholarships.]

SATs worldwide

Internationally, there is little interest or knowledge of the SAT, because other countries usually have their own standardized tests. However, the SATs are available worldwide to interested students.

Graduates of schools outside of the United States seeking admission to U.S. colleges/universities are often expected to provide SAT (or ACT) scores. These students are often not informed of the availability of these tests, and most teachers outside of the U.S. (especially those in non-English speaking countries) are also not aware of this requirement. Usually, interested students must obtain information about the test on their own (typically from U.S. embassies, consulates, an international school and/or by obtaining a free "SAT Program Registration Bulletin, International Version"). This can require international travel and large fees. Because the SAT has been well established for many years, some universities outside of the U.S. may also consider SAT scores in their admissions process as well, although they are rarely required.

In 2006/7 Australian students who apply for university on the basis of an SAT score appear to lose up to 6 UAI points in the process. See here for details.

England and Wales use quite different tests called SATs (pronounced sats) at several stages in the school system.

SAT Reasoning Test

The SAT Reasoning Test (formerly the SAT I: Reasoning Test and commonly referred to as the SAT I) consists of three sections: math, critical reading, and writing. Beginning with the March 12, 2005 administration of the exam, the SAT Reasoning Test was modified and lengthened. Changes included the removal of analogy questions from the Critical Reading (formerly verbal) section and quantitative comparisons from the mathematics section. A writing section (with an essay) based largely on the former SAT II Writing Subject Test was added to the exam, and the mathematics section was expanded to cover three years of high school mathematics. Also, since the writing section was included in the SAT I, the SAT II Writing Subject Test was discontinued. Short passages with one or two questions following them replaced analogies. Scores on each section range from 200 to 800, with scores always being a multiple of 10.

The new SAT contains ten sections and a total length of 3 hours 45 minutes; with the additional writing section, a "perfect" score on the new SAT is 2400 (Among 2006 college-bound high school seniors, 238 students scored a perfect 2400[1]; scores are calculated by the addition of the score on each section; thus a score of 800 on the Critical Reading, Math and Writing sections are needed for a perfect score). The ten sections are divided up as follows: Three math, three reading, and three writing, with one equating section which may be any one of the three types. The equating section does not count in any way towards a student's score; it is used to test questions for future exams and to compare the difficulty level of each exam. During the test, takers do not know which section is the equating section (however, it is never the essay or Sections 8, 9, or 10, which are the shortened reading, math, or writing sections). Each of the questions within a section is ordered by difficulty (the test is commonly said to be "powered"). However, an important exception exists: Questions that follow the long and short reading passages are organized chronologically instead of by difficulty. It's also important to note that each question carries the same weighting. Each question now has five answer choices. Ten of the questions in one of the math sections are not multiple-choice. They instead require the test taker to input the result of their calculations in a four-column grid. For each correct answer, one raw point is added; for each incorrect answer one-fourth of a point is deducted, except no points are deducted for incorrect math grid-in questions. This ensures that a student's mathematically expected gain from random guessing is zero. For the ten student-produced answers in the math section, no points are deducted for a wrong answer. The final score is derived from the raw score; the precise conversion chart varies between test administrations due to minor variations in test difficulty.

The writing section of the new SAT includes multiple choice questions and a brief essay. The essay section, which is always administered first, is twenty-five minutes long. All essays must be in response to a given prompt. The prompts are broad philosophical questions. Test takers may be asked to explain their opinion on the value of work in human life, or whether democracy represents an ideal system of government. While five-paragraph essays are not required, the College Board recommends using a variety of examples drawn from the individual's life experience, from history or from literature. Trained readers assign each essay a score between one and six. Blank essays or those which are considered off-topic are given a score of zero. In the complex process of scaling a test-taker's writing score, the essay score accounts for roughly thirty percent; the multiple choice component, seventy percent. In other words, the essay score represents roughly two hundred points out of 2400; on most test administrations, it should be possible to obtain a score of 2200 or above while leaving the essay blank.

Which scores on the new test qualify as "excellent", "average", or "poor" is yet to be determined. One of the reasons for the new test was to broaden the range of scores by adding another section; however, this tends to make judging new scores difficult. Many American colleges will require the new test, but will continue to only consider the reading and math score combination in the criteria of their admissions process. Some colleges will now accept the writing section in lieu of the SAT II: Writing Subject Test, which has been discontinued. Most universities and colleges plan to study the results from the new tests for several years before setting expectations and requirements.

In the early 1990s, the SAT consisted of six sections: Two math sections (scored together on a 200-800 scale), two verbal sections (scored together on a 200-800 scale), the Test of Standard Written English (scored on a 20-60+ scale), and an equating section. In 1994, the exam was modified, removing antonym questions, and adding math questions that were not multiple choice. The average score on the 1994 modification of the SAT I was, in theory, 1000 (500 on the verbal, 500 on the math). The most recent national average was 520 for math and 508 for verbal, a combined score of 1028. The most selective schools in the United States (for example, those in the Ivy League) typically had SAT averages exceeding 1400 on the old test.

Taking the test

The SAT is offered seven times a year in the United States, in October, November, December, January, March (or April, alternating), May, and June. The SAT is typically offered on the first Saturday of the month for the November, December, May and June test dates. In other countries, the SAT is offered on the same dates as in the United States except for the first spring test date (i.e. March or April), which is not offered. Students can prepare for the test with books, tutors, online programs, or the use of newly designed calculator programs during the test. Companies such as Kaplan, Inc. and The Princeton Review have tutoring programs that can reach $1100 - $3000 (USD) for a six week session. In addition, numerous "boutique" tutoring companies offer one-on-one tutoring services, ranging from around $250 to over $700 per hour, depending upon the experience level of the individual tutor. There is also the little known resource of calculator programs, some of which can be used during the math section of the test (one example featured by The New York Times can be found at http://www.HigherSAT.com and goes for $39), while others can be used in place of verbal flashcards. Online test preparation is widely available; the first such online SAT preparation course www.testprep.com was created in 1995 by Pardner Wynn, and was recommended by the New York Times, The Wall Street Journal Smart Money Magazine, and PC Magazine's first "Top 100 Websites" list.

Candidates may either take the SAT Reasoning Test or up to three SAT Subject Tests on any given test date, except the first spring test date, when only the SAT Reasoning Test is offered. Candidates wishing to take the test may register online at the College Board's website, by mail, or by telephone, at least three weeks before the test date.

The SAT Reasoning Test costs $41.50($63.50 International). For the Subject tests, students pay an $18 Basic Registration Fee and $8 per test (except for language tests with listening, which cost $19 each). The College Board makes fee waivers available for low income students. Additional fees apply for late registration, standby testing, registration changes, scores by telephone, and extra score reports (beyond the four provided for free).

Candidates whose religious beliefs prevent them from taking the test on a Saturday may request to take the test on the following Sunday. Such requests must be made at the time of registration and are subject to denial.

Students with Disabilities

Students with verifiable disabilities are eligible to take the SAT with accommodations. They are given extended time by 50 percent. For example, when a student takes a 25-minute section, the student is given 38 minutes.

Raw scores, scaled scores and percentiles

The student receives their score report approximately two to three weeks after administration of the test, with each section graded on a scale of 200 to 800. In addition to their score, students receive their percentile (the percentage of other test takers with lower scores). The raw score, or the number of points gained from correct answers and lost from incorrect answers (ranges from just under 50 to just under 60, depending upon the test), is not included; however, the raw score can be readily calculated from the information provided on the score report. Students may also receive, for an additional fee, the Question and Answer Service, which provides the student's answer, the correct answer to each question, and online resources explaining each question.

The corresponding percentile of each scaled score varies from test to test — for example, in 2003, a scaled score of 800 in both sections of the SAT Reasoning Test corresponded to a percentile of 99.9, while a scaled score of 800 in the SAT Physics Test corresponded to the 94th percentile. The differences in what scores mean with regard to percentiles are because of the content of the exam and the caliber of students choosing to take each exam. Subject Tests are subject to intensive study (often in the form of an AP, which is relatively more difficult), and only those who know they will perform tend to take these tests, creating a skewed or non-linear distribution of scores.

The percentiles that various SAT I scores for college-bound seniors correspond to are summarized in the following chart:

Percentile	Score, 1600 Scale (official, 2006)	Score, 2400 Scale (official, 2006)
99.98	1600	2400
99.65	≥1550	≥2300
99	≥1480	≥2200
98	≥1450	≥2150
97	≥1420	≥2100
93	≥1350	≥2000
88	≥1280	≥1900
81	≥1220	≥1800
72	≥1150	≥1700
61	≥1080	≥1600
48	≥1010	≥1500
36	≥950	≥1400
15	≥800	≥1200
4	≥660	≥1000
1	≥530	≥800

The "old" SAT (prior to 1995) had an incredibly high ceiling. In any given year, only seven of the million test-takers scored above 1580. If one makes the reasonable assumption that all of the very brightest people in that U.S. age group, which numbers 3 million, took the test, then a score above 1580 has a rarity of about one in 400 thousand., equivalent to the 99.9997 percentile ^[1]

SAT Subject Tests

The SAT Subject Tests are 20 one-hour multiple-choice tests given in individual subjects. A student chooses which ones he or she will take, depending upon individual factors, such as college entrance requirements. Until 1994, the SAT Subject Tests were known as Achievement Tests; until January 2005 they were formally named "SAT II," the name by which they are still well known. The exception to the one-hour time was the Writing test, which was divided into a 20-minute essay question and a 40-minute multiple choice section; it was discontinued after January 2005. A student may take up to three SAT Subject tests on any given date, which are the same dates as for the administration of the SAT Reasoning Test. It is recommended that any high school student who takes an AP class, should take the SAT Subject Test in that area of study just after the AP exam (around June).

Subject tests

English

Literature

History and Social Studies

U.S. History (formerly American History and Social Studies)
World History

Mathematics

Mathematics Level 1 (formerly Math IC)
Mathematics Level 2 (formerly Math IIC)

Science

Biology E/M (Ecological/Molecular)
Chemistry
Physics

Languages

Korean with Listening
Japanese with Listening
Chinese with Listening
Modern Hebrew
Italian
Latin
French
French with Listening
German
German with Listening
Spanish
Spanish with Listening

History and name changes

The initials SAT have been used since the test was first introduced in 1901, when it was known as the Scholastic Achievement Test and was meant to measure the level achieved by students seeking college admission. The test was used mainly by colleges and universities in the northeastern United States. In 1941, after considerable development, the non-profit College Board changed the name to the Scholastic Aptitude Test, still the most popular name. The test became much more widely used in the 1950s and 1960s and once was almost universal.

The success of SAT coaching schools, such as Kaplan, Inc. and the Princeton Review, forced the College Board to change the name again. In 1990, the name was changed to Scholastic Assessment Test, since a test that can be coached clearly did not measure inherent "scholastic aptitude", but was influenced largely by what the test subject had learned in school. This was a major theoretical retreat by the College Board, which had previously maintained that the test measured inherent aptitude and was free of bias.

In 1994, however, the redundancy of the term assessment test was recognized and the name was changed to the neutral, and non-descriptive, SAT. At the time, the College Board announced, "Please note that SAT is not an initialism. It does not stand for anything."

The test scoring was initially scaled to make 500 the mean score on each section with a standard deviation of 100. As the test grew more popular and more students from less rigorous schools began taking the test, the average dropped to about 450 for each section. Various attempts to balance out this decline led to complex statistical anomalies. For example, in certain years it was impossible to get a score of 780 or 790 on a section; one could only get a 770 or below or an 800. To combat the trend toward declining scores, the SAT was "recentered" in 1995, and the average score became again closer to 500. All scores awarded after 1994 are officially reported with an "R" (e.g. 1260R) to reflect this change.

In 2005, the test was changed again, in response to various criticisms. Because of issues concerning ambiguous questions, especially analogies, certain types of questions were eliminated (the analogies disappeared altogether). The test was made marginally harder, as a corrective to the rising number of perfect scores. A new writing section was added, in part to increase the chances of closing the opening gap between the highest and midrange scores. Other factors included the desire to test the writing ability of each student in a personal manner; hence the essay. The New SAT (officially the SAT Reasoning Test) was first offered on March 12, 2005, after the last administration of the "old" SAT, the 1994 revision, in January of that year.

Alternative theories about the motivation for these changes have proliferated, especially among students. One possible explanation is that the greater emphasis on verbal skills reflects our society's persistent devalueing of mathematical ability. The addition of a writing section may be intended to boost the scores of young women, who tend to be more proficient in the language arts. While this might appear a boon to female students, it would simultaneously mask the persistent gender gap in mathematics, deflecting attention from this critical issue.

The March 12th test was reported to have 107 perfect "2400" scores, above College Board estimates but at a far lesser rate relative to the old proportion of perfect scores on the 1600-point test.

In March of 2006, it was announced that a small percentage of the SAT tests taken in October 2005 had been scored incorrectly, giving some students substantially different scores. The College Board announced they would change the scores for the students who were given a lower score than they earned, but at this point many of those students had already applied to colleges using their original scores. This angered a large number of people, and provoked strikes nationwide amongst affected students. The College Board decided not to change the scores for the students who were given a higher score than they earned. A lawsuit has been filed by a student who received an incorrect low score on the SAT. [2] The lawsuit is currently seeking class action status.

Criticism

The SAT and IQ

The linking of intelligence quotient (IQ) and the SAT is controversial. While Frey and Detterman posit a correlation between ("old") SAT scores and IQ (offering methods for estimating a test taker's IQ from his SAT score, and vice-versa), others state that such studies are subject to bias. [3] John Katzman, founder of The Princeton Review, argues in an interview for Frontline (PBS) against its status as an IQ test.

Mensa used to accept individuals who scored a 1300+ on the SAT prior to September 30 1974, and 1250+ on tests up to January 31, 1994. After the test was recentered in 1995, Mensa decided that SAT scores were no longer an effective measure of intelligence and high scores are no longer accepted.

Essay

In 2005, MIT Professor Les Perelman was able to plot essay length versus essay score on the new SAT. The correlation found between them was strikingly high. He argued that he was able to hold up an essay just far enough away to be illegible, and guess what the score of the essay was from the length and shape of it. He was correct 90% of the time.[4]

Bias

The SAT Reasoning Test is controversial. Critics claim that it is biased towards males and whites. Opponents of the SAT propose different solutions, including the offering of different SAT tests targeted at different demographic groups. Furthermore, many of the multiple-choice questions and word analogies have been found to be ambiguous, and some math scores have had to be changed because of errors in scoring.

A famous example of alleged bias in SAT testing on the SAT I, and cited by commentators from both ends of the political spectrum (Don't Believe the Hype, Chideya, 1995; The Bell Curve, Hernstein and Murray, 1994 [5]), has been the oarsman-regatta analogy question. The object of the question was to find the pair of terms that have the relationship most similar to the relationship between "runner" and "marathon". The answer, between "oarsman" and "regatta", came under fire.

As shown above, SAT scores vary according to race, income, and parental educational background

The question relies upon students knowing the meaning of the two terms, referring to a sport popular only among those of relatively high income. According to one source, while 53% of white students correctly answered the question, only 22% of black students did. [6] Chideya (1995) cites also an analogy involving the terms dividend and stockholder. However, it should be noted that the black - white gap in average scores on the SAT I math section (104 points as of 2004), which is less susceptible to charges of cultural bias, was even greater than the gap in the verbal section (98 points). (Data on score gap from table in Black Issues in Higher Education, September 23, 2004 [7])

In response to such criticisms, ETS considerably strengthened their fairness review process, and now rigorously examines each question for potential biases. Analogies questions have been eliminated entirely. While this has led to tests that are arguably 'more fair' in terms of the extent to which they discriminate against particular groups, some critics, such as Diane Ravitch, have lamented what they see as the watering-down of the test and have pointed out that the SAT is now so 'fair' that it is not representative of real-world reasoning circumstances and language.

The SAT has also faced criticism in the form of complaints that the reading passages on the exam have often been pieces that espouse environmentalism or that are pro-multiculturalism. ETS has responded by limiting the number of such passages or by placing them in the context of opposing viewpoints. In addition, the SAT also scrupulously avoids references to human evolution because of claims on the part of some students that evolution is an upsetting topic and that discussion of it discriminates against students with conflicting beliefs.

SAT Optional

More than 700 colleges and universities in the United States have made the SAT Reasoning Test optional and have begun to pay more attention to other measures of student ability in their undergraduate admissions decisions.

This list of schools includes [8]:

Univ. of California

In a 2001 speech to the American Council of Education, Richard C. Atkinson, then president of the University of California, urged dropping the SAT Reasoning Test as a college admissions requirement:

"Anyone involved in education should be concerned about how overemphasis on the SAT is distorting educational priorities and practices, how the test is perceived by many as unfair, and how it can have a devastating impact on the self-esteem and aspirations of young students. There is widespread agreement that overemphasis on the SAT harms American education." [9]

and

"In 1996, [the College Board] dropped the name altogether and said that the "SAT" was the "SAT" and that the initials no longer stood for anything. Rather than resolving the problem, this rhetorical sleight-of-hand served to underscore the mystery of what the SAT is supposed to measure." [10]

Response

In response to these various criticisms, the College Entrance Examination Board announced the restructuring of the SAT, to take effect in March 2005, as detailed above.

However, criticism began even before copies or even sample questions were available. FairTest, an organization which advocates against the misuse and overuse of standardized testing and for richer forms of assessment, stated that the old test did a "particularly poor job of predicting how females, students of color, and older test-takers will do in college" [11]. They also commented that "the gender gap may be reduced slightly" on the New SAT, "but will probably not be completely eliminated" [12].

SAT and Coaching and Preparation

The importance of the SAT towards college admission has naturally led to the development of SAT preparation and coaching services. The multimillion dollar industry for SAT coaching and test prep consists of books and CD media, traditional classroom instruction, and online materials. Major preparation services charge approximately $800 for 30-40 hours of instruction. These companies claim their preparation will average in gains of 100-140 points combined on the SAT. The general public assumes that coaching will have a large effect on SAT scores, however a comprehensive study by Dr Briggs of the University of Colorado shows that SAT test score gains from coaching are fairly minimal. The average gain from SAT coaching was found to be only 20 to 30 points combined. ^[2]

Several public schools now require that their students take an SAT Prep course.

The “old” coaching/preparation ineffectiveness argument was that the SAT was an aptitude test that measured intrinsic, unchanging ability. This old argument has been proven wrong by millions of students studying and improving their SAT scores. It’s difficult to argue that studying a word list such as FreeVocabulary.com or reviewing grammar rules and math rules will not improve test scores.

The “new” coaching/preparation ineffectiveness argument is that commercial programs are not as effective as they claim to be especially in comparison to a motivated student self-studying a similar amount of time. Edward Fiske, of Fiske Guide to Colleges, takes the anti-course, self-study (with his own SAT book) position. It’s true that one can purchase a book on any subject, SAT, calculus or economics, and in theory a self-motivated, gifted student could learn everything from a textbook alone. In practice, a course with a live teacher and feedback usually helps.

References

^ Membership Committee (1999). "1998/99 Membership Committee Report". Prometheus Society. Retrieved 2006-07-26. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
^ Derek Chrisitian Briggs (2002). "SAT Coaching, Bias and Causal Inference". University of California, Berkeley. Retrieved 2006-07-26. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)

External links

[psychom-1] Membership Committee (1999). "1998/99 Membership Committee Report". Prometheus Society. Retrieved 2006-07-26. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)

[coaching-2] Derek Chrisitian Briggs (2002). "SAT Coaching, Bias and Causal Inference". University of California, Berkeley. Retrieved 2006-07-26. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)

[1]

[2]

@@ Line 209: / Line 209: @@
 However, criticism began even before copies or even sample questions were available.  FairTest, an organization which advocates against the misuse and overuse of standardized testing and for richer forms of assessment, stated that the old test did a "particularly poor job of predicting how females, students of color, and older test-takers will do in college" [http://www.fairtest.org/univ/newsatfact.htm].  They also commented that "the gender gap may be reduced slightly" on the New SAT, "but will probably not be completely eliminated" [http://www.fairtest.org/univ/newsatfact.htm].
-Other colleges have encouraged the use of the alternate [[ACT (examination)|ACT]] exam.
 ==SAT and Coaching and Preparation==