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Coordinates: 35°52′00″S 145°07′05″E / 35.86667°S 145.11806°E / -35.86667; 145.11806
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== History ==
== History ==
Barmah National Park was originally utilised by [[Indigenous Australians]] to find food, shelter and materials. Following the settlement of Europeans into the area, the Barmah National Park became an important fishing and logging area, with surrounding land cleared for agriculture and grazing. Rabbits, foxes, sheep, cattle and horses were introduced into the area.<ref name="Di Stefano">{{cite journal|last=Di Stefano|first=Julian|title=River red gum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis): a review of ecosystem processes, seedling regeneration and silvicultural practice|journal=Australian Forestry |year=2002 |volume=65|issue=1 |pages=14–22 |doi=10.1080/00049158.2002.10674848}}</ref><ref name=Kenyon>{{cite journal |last=Kenyon |first=C |author2=Rutherford |title=Preliminary evidence for pollen as an indicator of recent floodplain accumulation rates and vegetation changes: the Barmah-Millewa Forest, SE Australia|journal=Environmental Management |year=1999|volume=55|pages=359–367 |doi=10.1007/s002679900239}}</ref> The park contains a large population of horses, known as the Barmah brumbies,<ref>{{cite web |title = Barmah Forest Brumbies |url = http://australianbrumbyalliance.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/Barmah-Forest-Brumbies.pdf |format = PDF |publisher = Australian Brumby Alliance |access-date = 13 December 2018}}</ref> which mainly originate from stock released by a local trotting horse breeder after 1952, there was no significant long term population of "wild" horses in the Barmah Forest prior to this time.<ref>{{cite web |author1=Context Pty Ltd |title=History of Wild Horses in the Barmah National Park |url=https://parkweb.vic.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0008/734687/Wild-Horses-in-the-Barmah-NP-History-Report_.pdf |accessdate=14 April 2019 |date=2014}}</ref>
Barmah National Park was originally utilised by [[Indigenous Australians]] to find food, shelter and materials. Following the settlement of Europeans into the area, the Barmah National Park became an important fishing and logging area, with surrounding land cleared for agriculture and grazing. Rabbits, foxes, sheep, cattle and horses were introduced into the area.<ref name="Di Stefano">{{cite journal|last=Di Stefano|first=Julian|title=River red gum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis): a review of ecosystem processes, seedling regeneration and silvicultural practice|journal=Australian Forestry |year=2002 |volume=65|issue=1 |pages=14–22 |doi=10.1080/00049158.2002.10674848}}</ref><ref name=Kenyon>{{cite journal |last=Kenyon |first=C |author2=Rutherford |title=Preliminary evidence for pollen as an indicator of recent floodplain accumulation rates and vegetation changes: the Barmah-Millewa Forest, SE Australia|journal=Environmental Management |year=1999|volume=55|pages=359–367 |doi=10.1007/s002679900239}}</ref> The park contains a small population of horses, known as the Barmah brumbies,<ref>{{cite web |title = Barmah Forest Brumbies |url = http://australianbrumbyalliance.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/Barmah-Forest-Brumbies.pdf |format = PDF |publisher = Australian Brumby Alliance |access-date = 13 December 2018}}</ref> which mainly originate from escaped or released stock in early European settlement. Stock released by a local trotting horse breeder after 1952added to the wild horse population in the Barmah Forest. There were 70 known Barmah Brumbies in this area prior to this time.<ref>{{cite web |author1=Context Pty Ltd |title=History of Wild Horses in the Barmah National Park |url=https://parkweb.vic.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0008/734687/Wild-Horses-in-the-Barmah-NP-History-Report_.pdf |accessdate=14 April 2019 |date=2014}}</ref>


Hardwood timber was harvested from the Barmah region from around 1870,<ref name="Kenyon" /> and logging was an important industry in the region.
Hardwood timber was harvested from the Barmah region from around 1870,<ref name="Kenyon" /> and logging was an important industry in the region.
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Though the future impact of climate change on River Red Gum forests is unknown, there has already been a significant dieback of trees in the area due to ongoing [[evapotranspiration]] deficits.<ref>{{cite journal |title = Eucalypts face increasing climate stress |first1 = Nathalie |last1 = Butt |first2 = Laura J. |last2 = Pollock |first3 = Clive A. |last3 = McAlpine |journal = Ecology and Evolution |date = December 2013 |volume = 3 |issue = 15 |pages = 5011–5022 |doi=10.1002/ece3.873 |pmc=3892364 |pmid=24455132}}</ref>
Though the future impact of climate change on River Red Gum forests is unknown, there has already been a significant dieback of trees in the area due to ongoing [[evapotranspiration]] deficits.<ref>{{cite journal |title = Eucalypts face increasing climate stress |first1 = Nathalie |last1 = Butt |first2 = Laura J. |last2 = Pollock |first3 = Clive A. |last3 = McAlpine |journal = Ecology and Evolution |date = December 2013 |volume = 3 |issue = 15 |pages = 5011–5022 |doi=10.1002/ece3.873 |pmc=3892364 |pmid=24455132}}</ref>


The extent of the [[Pseudoraphis spinescens|Moira grass]] plains, dominated by [[Pseudoraphis spinescens|Moira grass]] (''[[Pseudoraphis spinescens]]'') has declined by 96 per cent over the last 80 years in the Barmah Forest, and the [[Pseudoraphis spinescens|Moira grass]] plains are predicted to be extinct in the Barmah Forest by 2026 without management intervention.<ref name="Colloff et al. 2014">{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1002/aqc.2390| volume = 24| issue = 2| pages = 238–255| last1 = Colloff| first1 = Matthew J.| last2 = Ward| first2 = Keith A.| last3 = Roberts| first3 = Jane| title = Ecology and conservation of grassy wetlands dominated by spiny mud grass ''Pseudoraphis spinescens'' in the southern Murray-Darling Basin, Australia| journal = Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems| date = 2014}}</ref> Reductions in duration and depth of natural flooding due to regulation of the [[Murray River]], grazing and trampling pressure by introduced animals, particularly by [[Feral horse|feral horses]] (and previously, cattle), and invasive plant species are the main causes of this decline.<ref name="Barmah National Park Draft Strategic Action Plan 2019">{{cite web |title=Barmah National Park Draft Strategic Action Plan |url=https://parkweb.vic.gov.au/explore/parks/barmah-national-park/plans-and-projects/barmah-national-park-draft-strategic-action-plan |website=Parks Victoria |accessdate=14 April 2019 |language=en}}</ref>
The extent of the [[Pseudoraphis spinescens|Moira grass]] plains, dominated by [[Pseudoraphis spinescens|Moira grass]] (''[[Pseudoraphis spinescens]]'') has declined by 96 per cent over the last 80 years in the Barmah Forest, and the [[Pseudoraphis spinescens|Moira grass]] plains are predicted to be extinct in the Barmah Forest by 2026 without management intervention.<ref name="Colloff et al. 2014">{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1002/aqc.2390| volume = 24| issue = 2| pages = 238–255| last1 = Colloff| first1 = Matthew J.| last2 = Ward| first2 = Keith A.| last3 = Roberts| first3 = Jane| title = Ecology and conservation of grassy wetlands dominated by spiny mud grass ''Pseudoraphis spinescens'' in the southern Murray-Darling Basin, Australia| journal = Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems| date = 2014}}</ref> Reductions in duration and depth of natural flooding due to regulation of the [[Murray River]], grazing and trampling pressure by introduced animals by [[wild horse|wild horses]] (and previously, cattle), and invasive plant species are the main causes of this decline.<ref name="Barmah National Park Draft Strategic Action Plan 2019">{{cite web |title=Barmah National Park Draft Strategic Action Plan |url=https://parkweb.vic.gov.au/explore/parks/barmah-national-park/plans-and-projects/barmah-national-park-draft-strategic-action-plan |website=Parks Victoria |accessdate=14 April 2019 |language=en}}</ref>


== Management ==
== Management ==

Revision as of 20:10, 29 April 2019

Barmah National Park
Victoria
River Red Gums along the Murray River, adjacent to the national park
Barmah National Park is located in Victoria
Barmah National Park
Barmah National Park
Nearest town or cityBarmah
Coordinates35°52′00″S 145°07′05″E / 35.86667°S 145.11806°E / -35.86667; 145.11806
Established2010
Area285.21 km2 (110.1 sq mi)[1]
Managing authoritiesParks Victoria
WebsiteBarmah National Park
See alsoProtected areas of Victoria

The Barmah National Park is a national park located in the Hume region of the Australian state of Victoria.[2] The 28,500-hectare (70,000-acre) park is located adjacent to the Murray River near the town of Barmah, approximately 220 kilometres (140 mi) north of Melbourne. The park consists of River Red Gum trees (Eucalyptus camaldulensis) forest and wetlands. The area is subject to seasonal flooding from natural and irrigation water flows.

History

Barmah National Park was originally utilised by Indigenous Australians to find food, shelter and materials. Following the settlement of Europeans into the area, the Barmah National Park became an important fishing and logging area, with surrounding land cleared for agriculture and grazing. Rabbits, foxes, sheep, cattle and horses were introduced into the area.[3][4] The park contains a small population of horses, known as the Barmah brumbies,[5] which mainly originate from escaped or released stock in early European settlement. Stock released by a local trotting horse breeder after 1952added to the wild horse population in the Barmah Forest. There were 70 known Barmah Brumbies in this area prior to this time.[6]

Hardwood timber was harvested from the Barmah region from around 1870,[4] and logging was an important industry in the region.

The park was one of four established by the Victorian Government in 2010 to protect remnant River Red Gum forest.[7] The other parks created were the Gunbower National Park, Lower Goulburn National Park and the Warby-Ovens National Park.

In July 2010, the Government of New South Wales declared the Millewa Forest, on the northern banks of the Murray River, as a national park. The 41,601-hectare (102,800-acre) forest was renamed as the Murray Valley National Park, making the combined reserves a 70,000-hectare (170,000-acre) cross–border national park, managed by both governments and the Traditional Owners.[8][9] The combined parks are the largest continuous red gum forest in the world.[10][11][12]

The Barmah National Park is a camping, fishing, bird watching and horseriding destination.[9]

Climate

The Barmah National Park is known as a temperate semi-arid region, with low rainfall and high evaporation.[13] Average temperature maximums for the year are around 30 °C (86 °F) in January and February, with average minimum temperatures down to 4 °C (39 °F) in July. Average rainfall for the year is 400 millimetres (16 in), with the most rain falling in winter with an average monthly rainfall of 40 millimetres (1.6 in).[14]

Ecology

The Barmah National Park is a River Red Gum forest, consisting of an upper storey of red gums, no shrub layer or middle storey, and a ground storey of native grasses, sedges and rushes.[3][4][10] The edges of the forest merge into a eucalypt-box woodland.

The park is a large flood plain and wetland area, with flooding of the Murray River occurring sporadically, both naturally and due to flow regulation of the river.[15] The main fauna type found within the park are waterbirds. The area is a rich breeding, nesting and foraging area for over 200 bird species. It is also one of the largest breeding grounds of water birds in Victoria.[9] Reptiles and amphibians are also found within the river red gum forest, as well as many native fish species in the river, including the Murray Cod. The main native mammals found include the grey kangaroo, koala, emu and possum species.[9] Introduced animals such as rabbits, foxes and horses can also be seen throughout the park.

Environmental threats

Following European settlement of the area, land was extensively cleared to allow for farming and agriculture. Sheep and cattle grazing was a common sight around the Barmah region from the mid to late 1800s.[4][10][16] The periodic burning previously undertaken by Indigenous Australians was also halted.[3][10] Logging of the River Red Gum forests was an important part of the late 1800s and early 1900s.[4][10]

The construction of dams upstream from the Barmah National Park, from the 1920s onwards, have had a vast impact on the water flowing in the Murray River and instances of flooding.[17] The Hume Dam was operational from 1936, the Yarrawonga Weir in 1939, and the Dartmouth Dam from 1979.[3][10][13][17]

Since clearing for agriculture, and the subsequent dam construction took place, the Murray River has undergone some form of flow regulation.[17][18] The Barmah National Park and surrounding River Red Gum forests should naturally flood in spring and winter, due to the water catchment of the Murray River. However, due to flow regulation, the floods now occur in summer and autumn and are less frequent and of shorter duration than previously.[11][19]

A significant decrease in breeding and occurrence of waterbirds, particular woodland bird species and species of migratory birds has been reported in the Barmah National Park.[18] This decrease has been attributed to the changes to the flood regimes occurring in the area.[18]

A number of marsupial species are also no longer found within the park, including the rufous bettong, bridled nailtail wallaby, western barred bandicoot and lesser stick-nest rat.[3] Their absence has been attributed to the introduction of rabbits and foxes.[3]

Though the future impact of climate change on River Red Gum forests is unknown, there has already been a significant dieback of trees in the area due to ongoing evapotranspiration deficits.[20]

The extent of the Moira grass plains, dominated by Moira grass (Pseudoraphis spinescens) has declined by 96 per cent over the last 80 years in the Barmah Forest, and the Moira grass plains are predicted to be extinct in the Barmah Forest by 2026 without management intervention.[21] Reductions in duration and depth of natural flooding due to regulation of the Murray River, grazing and trampling pressure by introduced animals by wild horses (and previously, cattle), and invasive plant species are the main causes of this decline.[22]

Management

The Barmah Forest was declared as a national park by the Victorian Government in 2010 under the National Parks Act 1975.[23] The park is managed as part of a collaboration between Parks Victoria and the Traditional Owners of the area, including the Yorta Yorta people.[9]

The Barmah National Park is an internationally recognised wetland, listed under the Ramsar Convention,[9][11][13][24] and a number of bird species that utilise the Barmah National Park are part of the Japan-Australia Migratory Bird Agreement (JAMBA) and the China-Australia Migratory Bird Agreement (CAMBA).[11][13]

Flow regulation of the Murray River to benefit the surrounding agricultural land, has been undertaken for many years. However, more recently the importance of environmental flows is becoming increasingly acknowledged.[16] Scientific study has shown that River Red Gums rely on specific levels and durations of floods in order to survive and regenerate, similarly waterbird species also have very specific flood-related conditions in order to successfully breed and fledge chicks.[13][25] Flow regimes are also very important for native fish species populations.[24] Therefore, the alterations to the management of River Red Gum forests and regulation of water flows within the Murray River will be a very important area of study into the future.[16]

The timing and frequency of ecological burns will also need to be carefully monitored for future management of the park, as the increase in fire frequency predicted under climate change models may adversely impact bird habitat and may favour invasive plant and animal species.[26].

Parks Victoria's plan to reverse environmental degradation and definitively improve management of Barmah National Park prioritises timing of seasonal flooding to promote the growth of floodplain vegetation and provides habitat for breeding waterbirds, control of invasive plants, and the eradication of introduced grazing animals including horses, deer, pigs and goats. The aims of management plans are to protect the floodplain marshes, including increasing the extent of Moira grass plains, and to improve the quality of habitat for native flora and fauna in the Barmah National Park.[27][22]

See also

References

  1. ^ "Barmah National Park: Visitor Guide" (PDF). Parks Victoria (PDF). Government of Victoria. June 2014. Retrieved 20 August 2014.
  2. ^ "Barmah National Park". Parks Victoria. Government of Victoria. Retrieved 15 April 2013.
  3. ^ a b c d e f Di Stefano, Julian (2002). "River red gum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis): a review of ecosystem processes, seedling regeneration and silvicultural practice". Australian Forestry. 65 (1): 14–22. doi:10.1080/00049158.2002.10674848.
  4. ^ a b c d e Kenyon, C; Rutherford (1999). "Preliminary evidence for pollen as an indicator of recent floodplain accumulation rates and vegetation changes: the Barmah-Millewa Forest, SE Australia". Environmental Management. 55: 359–367. doi:10.1007/s002679900239.
  5. ^ "Barmah Forest Brumbies" (PDF). Australian Brumby Alliance. Retrieved 13 December 2018.
  6. ^ Context Pty Ltd (2014). "History of Wild Horses in the Barmah National Park" (PDF). Retrieved 14 April 2019.
  7. ^ "Parks and Crown Land Legislation Amendment (River Red Gums) Bill 2009". 2009. Retrieved 30 January 2012.
  8. ^ "River Red Gum forests and wetlands". Environment Victoria. Retrieved 21 April 2013.
  9. ^ a b c d e f "Barmah National Park Visitor Guide" (PDF). Parks Victoria. Retrieved 11 April 2013.
  10. ^ a b c d e f Bren, L. J. (1988). "Effects of river regulation on flooding of a riparian red gum forest on the River Murray, Australia". Regulated Rivers: Research & Management. 2: 65–77. doi:10.1002/rrr.3450020202.
  11. ^ a b c d Chong, J; Ladson (2003). "Analysis and management of unseasonal flooding in the Barmah-Millewa Forest, Australia". River Research and Applications. 19: 161–180. doi:10.1002/rra.705.
  12. ^ "Murray Valley National Park". NSW National Parks & Wildlife Service. Government of New South Wales. Retrieved 9 August 2014.
  13. ^ a b c d e Leslie, D. J. (2001). "Effect of river management on colonially-nesting waterbirds in the Barmah-Millewa Forest, south-eastern Australia". Regulated Rivers: Research & Management. 17: 17–31. doi:10.1002/1099-1646(200101/02)17:1<21::aid-rrr589>3.0.co;2-v.
  14. ^ "Echuca aerodrome". Bureau of Meteorology. Retrieved 21 April 2013.
  15. ^ Argent, R. M.; McMahon T. A; Bowler J. M; Finlayson B. L. (2004). "The dendroecological Potential of Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnhardt (River Red Gum) from the Barmah Forest, Victoria, Australia". Australian Geographical Studies. 42 (1): 89–102. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8470.2004.00245.x.
  16. ^ a b c Bennett, J (2008). "Defining and managing environmental flows: inputs from society". Economic Papers. 27 (2): 167–183. doi:10.1111/j.1759-3441.2008.tb01035.x.
  17. ^ a b c Thoms, M. C. (1995). "The impact of catchment development on a semiarid wetland complex: the Barmah Forest, Australia". IAHS Publications-Series of Proceedings and Reports-Intern Assoc Hydrological Sciences. 230: 121–130.
  18. ^ a b c McGinness, H. A.; Arthur A. D; Reid, J. R. W (2010). "Woodland bird declines in the Murray-Darling Basin: are there links with floodplain change?". The Rangeland Journal. 32: 315–327.
  19. ^ Glazebrook, H. S.; Robertson A. I. (1999). "The effect of flooding and flood timing on leaf litter breakdown rates and nutrient dynamics in a river red gum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis) forest". Australian Journal of Ecology. 24: 625–635. doi:10.1046/j.1442-9993.1999.00992.x.
  20. ^ Butt, Nathalie; Pollock, Laura J.; McAlpine, Clive A. (December 2013). "Eucalypts face increasing climate stress". Ecology and Evolution. 3 (15): 5011–5022. doi:10.1002/ece3.873. PMC 3892364. PMID 24455132.
  21. ^ Colloff, Matthew J.; Ward, Keith A.; Roberts, Jane (2014). "Ecology and conservation of grassy wetlands dominated by spiny mud grass Pseudoraphis spinescens in the southern Murray-Darling Basin, Australia". Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems. 24 (2): 238–255. doi:10.1002/aqc.2390.
  22. ^ a b "Barmah National Park Draft Strategic Action Plan". Parks Victoria. Retrieved 14 April 2019.
  23. ^ "NATIONAL PARKS ACT 1975". classic.austlii.edu.au.
  24. ^ a b King, A. J.; Ward K. A; O’Connor P; Green D; Tonkin Z; Mahoney J. (2010). "Adaptive management of an environmental watering event to enhance native fish spawning and recruitment". Freshwater Biology. 55: 17–31. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2427.2009.02178.x.
  25. ^ Briggs, S. V.; Thornton S. A; Lawler W. G (1997). "Relationships between hydrological control of River Red Gum wetlands and waterbird breeding". Emu. 97: 31–42. doi:10.1071/mu97003.
  26. ^ "Chapter 5: Threats to Australian biodiversity". Assessment of Australia’s Terrestrial Biodiversity 2008 (PDF). Commonwealth of Australia: Department of Environment, Water, Heritage, and the Arts. 2007. p. 158.
  27. ^ "Feral horse management planning: Barmah". Parks Victoria. Retrieved 13 December 2018.


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