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The Islamic Republic of Iran has, since its early years and the Iran hostage crisis, engaged it repeated dubious detention of foreign or dual nationals.[1] This occurred for extended period, with long documented history of using the detained party as a bargaining piece in larger diplomatic negotiations.[2] The list below of current and former detainees in Iran excludes people abducted in other countries and brought into the country.[why?]

Hostage diplomacy

See also: Hostage diplomacy

Since the Iran hostage crisis, the Islamic Republic of Iran has engaged in a pattern of detaining foreign nationals for extended periods.[1] According to the Center for Human Rights in Iran, the Iranian government has used imprisoned dual and foreign-only nationals "as bargaining chips in its dealings with other nations."[3] Iran's repeated dubious detention of dual citizen and thereafter bargaining behavior have lead observers to qualify the practice as a case of hostage diplomacy, with a long documented history.[2]

Detainees

Dual nationals of Iran and another country are particularly vulnerable to arbitrary detention because the international Master Nationality Rule provides that "a State may not afford diplomatic protection to one of its nationals against a state whose nationality such person also possesses".[4]

According to Human Rights Watch, "Iranian authorities have violated detainees' due process rights and carried out a pattern of politically motivated arrests."[5] In November 2017, Reuters reported that Iran's Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) had arrested "at least 30 dual nationals during the past two years, mostly on spying charges."[6]

Reactions

In September 2019, on the sidelines of the Seventy-fourth session of the United Nations General Assembly, families of dual and foreign nationals imprisoned in Iran as well former dual and foreign nationals imprisoned in Iran launched the "Alliance of Families Against State Hostage Taking."[7][8][9]

In January 2023, France called for the release of seven nationals, who were held in Iran. One of the detainees, Fariba Adelkhak was arrested in June 2019, along with her colleague Roland Marchal. While Marchal was released in 2020, but Fraiban Adelkhak remained in prison amid mounting political tensions in Iran.[10]

Current foreign nationals imprisoned in Iran

Name Detained Citizenship Days in detention Reason for detention Notes Ref.
Nazak Afshar 12 March 2016 France 3157 [11]
Ahmad Reza Jalali 24 April 2016 Sweden 3114 [12][13]
Abdolrasoul Dorri-Esfahani August 2016 Canada ~3015 In May 2017, convicted on espionage charges, including "collaborating with the British secret service," and sentenced to five years in prison. [14]
Jamshid Sharmahd July 2020 Germany 1558 U.S. permanent resident. Sentenced to death February 2023. [15]
Nahid Taghavi 16 October 2020 Germany [16]
Mehran Raoof 16 October 2020 UK [17]

U.S. citizens

Further information: Iran–United States relations
Name Detained Released Days in detention Reason for detention Notes Ref.
Masoud Jamali Ashtiani 20 May 2012 20 May 2013 365 propaganda against the regime 41 days in solidarity confinement [citation needed]
Emad Shargi 30 November 2020 18 September 2023 1022 Espionage / Spying Member of [18] in exchange for 5 U.S. prisoners and unfreezing of $6 billion in Iranian assets. Had been sentenced to 10 years in January 2021. Had previously been cleared in December 2019. (Iranian national who also holds US citizenship.) [19][20][18]
Michael White July 2018 19 March 2020 ~2316 [11]
Morad Tahbaz January 2018 18 September 2023 ~2086 Conspiring with America Member of group of 5 released in Sept 2023 in exchange for 5 U.S. prisoners and unfreezing of $6 billion in Iranian assets. (Iranian national who also holds US and UK citizenship.) [21][22][18]
Xiyue Wang 8 August 2016 7 December 2019 1216 [23]
Gholamreza (Reza) "Robin" Shahini 11 July 2016 21 March 2017 253 [24]
Karan Vafadari 20 July 2016 21 July 2018 731 Released on bail but reportedly has not been permitted to leave Iran. [25][26][22]
Baquer Namazi 22 February 2016 1 October 2022 3176 Released during the Mahsa Amini protests [27][28]
Siamak Namazi 13 October 2015 18 September 2023 2895 spying Member of group of 5 released in Sept 2023 in exchange for 5 U.S. prisoners and unfreezing of $6 billion in Iranian assets. (Iranian national who also holds US citizenship.) [29][30][22][18]
Nosratollah Khosravi-Roodsari May 2015 16 January 2016 ~260 [31]
Matthew Trevithick 7 December 2015 16 January 2016 39 [32]
Jason Rezaian 22 July 2014 16 January 2016 543 [33][34]
Saeed Abedini 28 July 2012 16 January 2016 1277 [34][35]
Afsaneh Azadeh 13 May 2012 September 2012 ~111 Azadeh was released from detention to house arrest from September 2012 – November 2012. She was not permitted to leave the country until May 2013. [36]
Amir Hekmati 29 August 2011 16 January 2016 1601 [34][37]
Joshua Fattal 31 July 2009 21 September 2011 782
Shane Bauer 31 July 2009 21 September 2011 782
Sarah Shourd 31 July 2009 14 September 2010 410
Roxana Saberi 31 January 2009 11 May 2009 100 [38]
Esha Momeni 15 October 2008 10 November 2008 26 Momeni was released on bail in November 2008 but she was not permitted to leave Iran until August 2009. [39]
Reza Taghavi May 2008 16 October 2010 ~898 [40]
Nik Moradi 31 October 2007 15 April 2008 167 [41]
Kian Tajbakhsh 11 May 2007 19 September 2007 140
Ali Shakeri 8 May 2007 25 September 2007 140
Haleh Esfandiari 8 May 2007 21 August 2007 105 [42][43]
Robert Levinson (alleged) 9 March 2007 Presumed dead 25 March 2020 >1333 (alleged) U.S. agent working for the CIA who disappeared on Kish Island. Proof of life in captivity in an unknown location was received in November 2010, but Iran has never acknowledged his arrest or detention; he was presumed dead in March 2020. [11]
Dariush Zahedi 10 July 2003 9 November 2003 122 [44]
Daniel Baumann 10 January 1997 16 March 1997 65 Dual U.S.-Swiss citizen. Arrested with South African Stuart Timm. [45]
Gerald Seib 31 January 1987 4 February 1987 4 Wall Street Journal reporter who had been visiting Iran with a group of journalists. [46]
Jon Pattis 16 June 1986 October 1991 ~1933 Sentenced to 10 years in prison in 1987 for espionage. [47][48]
David Rabhan 1980 6 August 1990 ~3564 [49]

U.S. permanent residents

Name Detained Released Days in detention Reason for detention Notes Ref.
Afshin Sheikholeslami Vatani 27 June 2020 In detention 1589 Released on bail in February 2019 but reportedly has not been permitted to leave Iran and then arrested again in 2020. [50]
Afarin Neyssari 20 July 2016 21 July 2018 731 Released on bail but reportedly has not been permitted to leave Iran. [25][26]
Shahab Dalili 20 March 2016 In detention 3149 cooperating with a hostile government U.S. permanent resident [51]
Jamshid Sharmahd 1 August 2020 In detention 1554 journalistic activity criticizing the Islamic regime for 16 years German citizen and U.S. permanent resident. Jimmy was kidnapped on a business trip to India and taken to Iran. He has spent the entire detention at an unknown location, in solitary confinement and after what Amnesty International calls a sham trial condemned to death. [52]

[53]

Iran hostage crisis detainees (1979–1981)

Further information: Iran hostage crisis
Name Detained Released Days in detention Notes
Cynthia Dwyer 5 May 1980 10 February 1981 281 Civilian. Freelance writer convicted on trumped-up charges of espionage and other crimes[54]
Mohi Sobhani 6 September 1980 4 February 1981 151 Civilian[55]
Thomas L. Ahern, Jr. 4 November 1979 20 January 1981 444
Clair Cortland Barnes 4 November 1979 20 January 1981 444
William E. Belk 4 November 1979 20 January 1981 444
Robert O. Blucker 4 November 1979 20 January 1981 444
Donald J. Cooke 4 November 1979 20 January 1981 444
William J. Daugherty 4 November 1979 20 January 1981 444
Robert Englemann 4 November 1979 20 January 1981 444
William Gallegos 4 November 1979 20 January 1981 444
Bruce W. German 4 November 1979 20 January 1981 444
Duane L. Gillette 4 November 1979 20 January 1981 444
Alan B. Golacinski 4 November 1979 20 January 1981 444
John E. Graves 4 November 1979 20 January 1981 444
Joseph M. Hall 4 November 1979 20 January 1981 444
Kevin J. Hermening 4 November 1979 20 January 1981 444
Donald R. Hohman 4 November 1979 20 January 1981 444
Leland J. Holland 4 November 1979 20 January 1981 444
Michael Howland 4 November 1979 20 January 1981 444
Charles A. Jones, Jr. 4 November 1979 20 January 1981 444
Malcolm K. Kalp 4 November 1979 20 January 1981 444
Moorhead C. Kennedy Jr. 4 November 1979 20 January 1981 444
William F. Keough, Jr. 4 November 1979 20 January 1981 444
Steven W. Kirtley 4 November 1979 20 January 1981 444
Kathryn L. Koob 4 November 1979 20 January 1981 444
Frederick Lee Kupke 4 November 1979 20 January 1981 444
Bruce Laingen 4 November 1979 20 January 1981 444
Steven Lauterbach 4 November 1979 20 January 1981 444
Gary E. Lee 4 November 1979 20 January 1981 444
Paul Edward Lewis 4 November 1979 20 January 1981 444
John Limbert 4 November 1979 20 January 1981 444
John D. McKeel, Jr. 4 November 1979 20 January 1981 444
Michael J. Metrinko 4 November 1979 20 January 1981 444
Jerry J. Miele 4 November 1979 20 January 1981 444
Michael E. Moeller 4 November 1979 20 January 1981 444
Bert C. Moore 4 November 1979 20 January 1981 444
Richard Morefield 4 November 1979 20 January 1981 444
Paul M. Needham, Jr. 4 November 1979 20 January 1981 444
Robert C. Ode 4 November 1979 20 January 1981 444
Gregory A. Persinger 4 November 1979 20 January 1981 444
Jerry Plotkin 4 November 1979 20 January 1981 444 Civilian
Regis Ragan 4 November 1979 20 January 1981 444
David M. Roeder 4 November 1979 20 January 1981 444
Barry M. Rosen 4 November 1979 20 January 1981 444
William B. Royer, Jr. 4 November 1979 20 January 1981 444
Thomas E. Schaefer 4 November 1979 20 January 1981 444
Charles W. Scott 4 November 1979 20 January 1981 444
Donald A. Sharer 4 November 1979 20 January 1981 444
Rodney V. Sickmann 4 November 1979 20 January 1981 444
Joseph Subic, Jr. 4 November 1979 20 January 1981 444
Elizabeth Ann Swift 4 November 1979 20 January 1981 444
Victor L. Tomseth 4 November 1979 20 January 1981 444
Phillip R. Ward 4 November 1979 20 January 1981 444
Richard Queen 4 November 1979 11 July 1980 250
Wesley Williams 4 November 1979 20 November 1979 16
Joan Walsh 4 November 1979 20 November 1979 16
David Walker 4 November 1979 20 November 1979 16
Joseph Vincent 4 November 1979 20 November 1979 16
Terri Tedford 4 November 1979 20 November 1979 16
Neal Robinson 4 November 1979 20 November 1979 16
Lloyd Rollins 4 November 1979 20 November 1979 16
Elizabeth Montagne 4 November 1979 20 November 1979 16
Lillian Johnson 4 November 1979 20 November 1979 16
James Hughes 4 November 1979 20 November 1979 16
Kathy Gross 4 November 1979 19 November 1979 15
Ladell Maples 4 November 1979 19 November 1979 15
William Quarles 4 November 1979 19 November 1979 15

British citizens

Further information: Iran–United Kingdom relations
Name Detained Released Days in detention Reason for detention Notes Ref.
Mehran Raoof 16 October 2020 In detention 1478 [17]
Kameel Ahmady 11 August 2019 17 November 2019 1910 Released on bail. Fled the Regime[56] [11][57]
Abbas Edalat 15 April 2018 December 2018 ~230
Morad Tahbaz January 2018 18 September 2023 ~2086 Conspiring with America Member of group of 5 released in Sept 2023 in exchange for 5 U.S. prisoners and unfreezing of $6 billion in Iranian assets. (Iranian national who also holds US and UK citizenship.) [3][18]
Anoush Ashoori August 2017 16 March 2022 ~2650 Convicted of spying for Israel's Mossad and sentenced to 12 years in prison. [11]
Nazanin Zaghari-Ratcliffe 3 April 2016 17 March 2020 (parole within 300 metres of house)
16 March 2022 		2173 (part parole) Sentenced to 5 years for ‘plotting to topple the Iranian government’. Iran (birth)/UK (2013) dual citizen [58][59][60]
Kamal Foroughi 5 May 2011 1 April 2020 3284 [61]
Ghoncheh Ghavami 20 June 2014 23 November 2014 156 [62]
Roya Saberi Negad Nobakht October 2013 25 August 2017 ~1424 Subject to travel ban after release. Unclear if she has been permitted to depart Iran. [11][63]
Andrew Barber 21 June 2010 18 August 2010 58 [64]
Iason Athanasiadis 17 June 2009 5 July 2009 18 Also holds Greek citizenship. [65][66]
Roger Cooper 7 December 1985 1 April 1991 1941 [67]
Frank Skinner 27 April 1981 13 April 1982 351 Flight engineer for Iran Air held without charge. [68][69]
Andrew Pyke 27 August 1980 28 January 1982 519 British businessman who worked for Dutch-Iranian helicopter firm, accused of spying but was never charged. [68]

List of British permanent residents

Name Detained Released Days in detention Reason for detention Notes Ref.
Aras Amiri 14 March 2018 16 August 2021 2425 Sentenced to 10 years in prison for spying. [70]
Ana Diamond 10 January 2016 January 2018 722 Arbitrary detention, falsely accused of espionage for "MI6, CIA, Mossad, and others." UK Permanent Resident at the time of arrest, as well as British naturalisation application in place.

Subjected to travel ban shortly after her arrival in Iran in August 2014, ~500-days before her arrest in January 2016. Travel ban imposed again following her release from Evin prison on bail in August 2016. Acquitted of all charges and travel ban lifted in 2018.

[71][72]

Canadian citizens

Further information: Canada–Iran relations
Name Detained Released Days in detention Reason for detention Notes Ref.
Kavous Seyed-Emami 24 January 2018 8 February 2018 15 Died in custody under suspicious circumstances. Authorities say he committed suicide. [21][73]
Abdolrasoul Dorri-Esfahani August 2016 In detention ~3015 In May 2017, convicted on espionage charges, including "collaborating with the British secret service," and sentenced to five years in prison. [14]
Homa Hoodfar 6 June 2016 26 September 2016 112 Undisclosed "security" charges Before arrest, had been prevented from leaving country from March 2016. [74]
Maziar Bahari 21 June 2009 17 October 2009 118 [75]
Hossein Derakhshan 1 November 2008 19 November 2014 2209 Sentenced to 19.5 years on "several national security, obscenity and religious insult charges in connection with his online activism." [76]
Hamid Ghassemi-Shall 24 May 2008 23 September 2013 1948 [77]
Zahra Kazemi 23 June 2003 10 July 2003 17 Died in custody as a result of torture. [78]
Ramin Jahanbegloo 27 April 2006 30 August 2006 125 Plotting a "velvet revolution" [79]
Philip Engs 3 December 1986 8 February 1987 67 Manager of oil services company, held in solitary confinement and interrogated at Evin Prison on ““Suspicion of espionage”’, never formally charged, and then released unharmed. Concessions were made by his employer on their contract for services with NIOC while he was detained. [80]

Canadian permanent residents

Name Detained Released Days in detention Reason for detention Notes Ref.
Saeed Malekpour 4 October 2008 ~August 2019 ~3953 Escaped Iran while on furlough from prison. [81][82]

Australian citizens

Further information: Australia–Iran relations
Name Detained Released Days in detention Reason for detention Notes Ref.
Jolie King ~1 July 2019 ~5 October 2019 ~96 Also holds British citizenship. [11][83]
Mark Firkin ~1 July 2019 ~5 October 2019 ~96 [11][83]
Meimanat Hosseini-Chavoshi December 2018 ~27 January 2019 ~57 Iranian authorities have reportedly prevented her from leaving the country. [84][85]
Kylie Moore-Gilbert September 2018 November 2020 ~792 Espionage Also holds British citizenship. [86][87]

New Zealand citizens

Name Detained Released Days in detention Reason for detention Notes Ref.
Topher Richwhite ~9 July 2022 ~27 October 2022 ~110 Well-known New Zealand citizen from Expedition Earth. [88]
Bridget Thackwray ~9 July 2022 ~27 October 2022 ~110 Well-known New Zealand citizen from Expedition Earth. [89]

Lebanese citizens

Further information: Iran–Lebanon relations
Name Detained Released Days in detention Reason for detention Notes Ref.
Nizar Zakka 15 September 2015 11 June 2019 1395 Permanent resident of the U.S. at time of arrest. [11]

French citizens

Further information: France–Iran relations
Name Detained Released Days in detention Reason for detention Notes Ref.
Fariba Adelkhah ~5 June 2019 ~October 2023 ~1579 [90][91]
Nazak Afshar 12 March 2016 In detention 3157 [11]
Benjamin Brière 26 May 2020 12 May 2023 1621 spying and propaganda, for flying a drone in an unauthorised area and making social media posts concerning Iranian law [92][93]
Nelly Erin-Cambervelle 21 October 2018 ~21 February 2019 ~123 "signing an illegal mining contract and carrying out an unauthorized trip" Erin-Cambervelle is a businesswoman from the French Caribbean island of Martinique. [94]
Stéphane Lherbier 29 November 2005 25 February 2007 453 Detained with German Donald Klein. [95]
Roland Marchal ~June 2019 20 March 2020 ~1981 [96]
Bernard Phelan 3 October 2022 12 May 2023 221 Providing information to an enemy country French-Irish. Sentenced to 6.5 years in February 2023. Had previously been sentenced to 3.5 years, and told he would be pardoned. [97][93]
Clotilde Reiss 1 July 2009 16 May 2010 319
Cécile Kohler 1 May 2202 ~916 "attempting to incite unrest and helping teachers strike in Iran" [98]

French permanent residents

Name Detained Released Days in detention Reason for detention Notes Ref.
Ruhollah Zam ~11 October 2019 Executed ~1849 Journalist, host of a 1.4 million follower Telegram chanel covering the2017–2018 Iranian protests. [99]

German citizens

Further information: Germany–Iran relations
Name Detained Released Days in detention Reason for detention Notes Ref.
Helmut Szimkus January 1989 14 June 1994 ~1685 [100][101]
Helmut Hofer September 1997 January 2000 852 Initially sentenced to death for having illicit sexual relations with an Iranian woman. [102][103]
Donald Klein 29 November 2005 12 March 2007 468 [95][104]
Marcus Hellwig 10 October 2010 19 February 2011 132 [105]
Jens Koch 10 October 2010 19 February 2011 132 [105]
Jamshid Sharmahd July 2020 In detention 1554 Journalistic activity criticizing the Islamic regime for 16 years German citizen and US national. Jimmy was kidnapped on a business trip to India and taken to Iran. He has spent the entire detention at an unknown location, in solitary confinement and after what Amnesty International calls a sham trial condemned to death. [15][106]
Nahid Taghavi 12 October 2020 In detention 1482 on 4 June 2023, Marges Mohammadi (also detained in Iran) wrote on Instagram that Taghavi's state of health is so bad that her life is in danger.[107] [108]

Austrian citizens

Name Detained Released Days in detention Reason for detention Notes Ref.
Massud Mossaheb January 2019 In detention ~2132 [109]
Kamran Ghaderi 2 January 2016 In detention 3227 [11]

Russian citizens

Further information: Iran–Russia relations
Name Detained Released Days in detention Reason for detention Notes Ref.
Yulia Yuzik 2 October 2019 10 October 2019 8 [110]

Dutch citizens

Further information: Iran–Netherlands relations
Name Detained Released Days in detention Reason for detention Notes Ref.
Sabri Hassanpour 19 April 2016 May 2018 [111][112]
Zahra Bahrami 27 December 2009 Executed 398 Arrested while participating in the 2009 Ashura protests. Charged with the capital crime of drug trafficking. Executed by hanging on 29 January 2011. [113]

Swedish citizens

Further information: Iran–Sweden relations
Name Detained Released Days in detention Reason for detention Notes Ref.
Ahmad Reza Jalali 24 April 2016 In detention 3114 [114][115]
Habib Chaab ~October 2020 Executed ~947 Death sentence upheld by Iranian supreme court March 2023. [116]
Johan Floderus 17 April 2023 15 June 2024 425 [117][118]
Stefan Johansson 26 February 2006 16 April 2007 414 Convicted for espionage and sentenced to 3 years in prison. [119]
Jari Hjortmar 26 February 2006 16 April 2007 414 Convicted for espionage and sentenced to 3 years in prison. [119]

Finnish citizens

Further information: Finland–Iran relations
Name Detained Released Days in detention Reason for detention Notes Ref.
Ana Diamond 10 January 2016 January 2018 ~722 Arbitrary detention, later falsely accused of espionage for "MI6, CIA, Mossad, and others." UK Permanent Resident at the time of arrest, as well as British naturalisation application in place.

Subjected to travel ban shortly after her arrival in Iran in August 2014, ~500-days before her arrest in January 2016. Travel ban imposed again following her release from Evin prison on bail in August 2016. Acquitted of all charges in 2017 and travel ban lifted in May 2018.

[120][121]

Belgian citizens

Further information: Belgium–Iran relations
Name Detained Released Days in detention Reason for detention Notes Ref.
Olivier Vandecasteele February 2022 Released on 26 May 2023 ~1005 [122]
Diego Mathieu 16 September 2009 8 December 2009 83 [123]
Vincent Boon Falleur 5 September 2009 8 December 2009 94 [124]
Idesbald van den Bosch 5 September 2009 8 December 2009 94 [124]

Armenian citizens

Further information: Armenia–Iran relations
Name Detained Released Days in detention Reason for detention Notes Ref.
Silva Harotonian 26 June 2008 10 March 2009 257 Convicted of promoting a "soft" revolution in Iran on January 19, 2009, and sentenced to 3 years in prison. At the time of her arrest, Harotonian was an administrative officer for a maternal and child health project in Tehran for International Research & Exchanges Board (IREX), a U.S. government-funded organization. [125]

South African citizens

Further information: Iran–South Africa relations
Name Detained Released Days in detention Reason for detention Notes Ref.
Stuart Timm 10 January 1997 17 February 1997 38 [45]

See also

References

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