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Peace Corps

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The current logo

The Peace Corps is an independent United States federal agency. The Peace Corps was established by Executive Order 10924 on March 1, 1961 and authorized by Congress on September 22, 1961 with passage of the Peace Corps Act (Public Law 87-293). The Peace Corps Act declares the purpose of the Peace Corps to be: “to promote world peace and friendship through a Peace Corps, which shall make available to interested countries and areas men and women of the United States qualified for service abroad and willing to serve, under conditions of hardship if necessary, to help the peoples of such countries and areas in meeting their needs for trained manpower.” Since 1960, more than 187,000 people have served as Peace Corps Volunteers in 139 countries.[1][2][3]

The current director is Ron Tschetter, who served as a Peace Corps Volunteer in India during the 1960s.[4][5]

Purpose and function

Countries that the Peace Corps currently (as of 2006) works in (orange) and has worked in previously (purple). (See picture details for countries that are unhighlighted.)

The Peace Corps works in over 70 countries around the world. Peace Corps Volunteers work with governments, schools, non-profits, NGOs, entrepreneurs, in the areas of education, health, HIV/AIDS, business, information technology, agriculture, and the environment.

The program officially has three goals:

  • To help the people of interested countries and areas in meeting their needs for trained workers;
  • To help promote a better understanding of Americans on the part of the peoples served;
  • To help promote a better understanding of other peoples on the part of Americans.

The Peace Corps works by first announcing its availability to foreign governments. These governments then determine areas in which the organization can be involved. The organization then matches the requested assignments to its pool of applicants and sends those volunteers with the appropriate skills to the countries that first made the requests.

History

File:KennedyPeaceCorps2.jpg
Floor marker, University of Michigan

Following the end of the Second World War, various members of the United States Congress proposed bills to establish volunteer organizations in the Third World. In 1952 Senator Brien McMahon (D-Connecticut) proposed an "army" of young Americans to act as "missionaries of democracy". Privately funded non-religious organizations began sending volunteers overseas during the 1950s.

Only in 1959, however, did the proposal for a national program of service abroad first receive serious attention in Washington when Congressman Henry S. Reuss of Wisconsin advanced the ideas of a “Point Four Youth Corps.” In 1960, he and Senator Richard L. Neuberger of Oregon introduced identical measures calling for a non-governmental study of the “advisability and practicability” of such a venture. Both the House Foreign Affairs Committee and the Senate Foreign Relations Committee endorsed the idea of a study, the latter writing the Reuss proposal into the Mutual Security legislation then pending before it. In this form it became law in June 1960. In August the Mutual Security Appropriations Act was enacted, making available $10,000 for the study, and in November ICA contracted with the Maurice Albertson, Andrew E. Rice, and Pauline E. Burkey of Colorado State University Research Foundation to make the study.[6]

File:KennedyPeaceCorps1.jpg
Plaque, University of Michigan

John F. Kennedy first announced his own idea for such an organization during the 1960 presidential campaign at a late-night speech at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor on October 14. During a later speech in San Francisco, California on November 1, he dubbed this proposed organization the "Peace Corps". Critics of the program (including Kennedy's opponent, Richard M. Nixon) claimed the program would be nothing but a haven for draft dodgers. Others doubted whether college-aged volunteers had the necessary skills. The idea was popular among college students, however, and Kennedy continued to pursue it, asking respected academics such as Max Millikan and Chester Bowles to help him outline the organization and its goals. During his inaugural address, Kennedy again promised to create the program: "And so, my fellow Americans: ask not what your country can do for you — ask what you can do for your country".[7]

Establishment and authorization

On March 1, 1961, Kennedy signed an Executive Order which officially started the Peace Corps. Concerned with the growing tide of revolutionary sentiment in the Third World, Kennedy saw the Peace Corps as a means of countering the notions of the "Ugly American" and "Yankee imperialism," especially in the emerging nations of postcolonial Africa and Asia. 1 2

On March 4, Kennedy appointed his brother-in-law Sargent Shriver to be the program's first director. Shriver was tasked with fleshing out the organization, which he did with the help of Warren W. Wiggins and others. Shriver and his think tank outlined the three major goals of the Peace Corps and decided the number of volunteers they needed to recruit. The program began recruiting volunteers that following July.

Until about 1967, applicants to the Peace Corps had to pass a placement test that tested "general aptitude" (knowledge of various skills needed for various Peace Corps assignments) and language aptitude. After an address from Kennedy, who was introduced by Rev. Russell Fuller of Memorial Christian Church, Disciples of Christ, on August 28, 1961, the first group of volunteers left for Ghana and Tanzania. The program was formally authorized by Congress on September 22, 1961 and within two years over 7,300 Peace Corps volunteers were serving in 44 countries. This number would jump to 15,000 in June of 1966, the largest number in the organization's history.

Early stumble

The organization experienced major controversy in its first year of operation. On October 13, 1961, a postcard was written by a volunteer named Margery Jane Michelmore in Nigeria to a friend in the U.S. She described her situation in Nigeria as "squalor and [of] absolutely primitive living conditions".[8][9] However, this postcard never made it out of the country.[9] The Ibadan University College Students Union demanded deportation and accused the volunteers of being "America's international spies" and the project as "a scheme designed to foster neo-colonialism".[10] Soon the international press picked up the story and this led several people in the U.S. administration to question the future of the program as a whole.[11] Nigerian students protested the program, and the American volunteers sequestered themselves and eventually began a hunger strike.[9] After several days, the Nigerian students agreed to open a dialogue with the Americans.[11]

Independent status

File:PCV card.jpg
1965 in-country identification card

The effect of the Peace Corps at this time was minimal. President Lyndon B. Johnson did little to propagate the group, but in his Great Society initiative he mentioned beginning Head Start in 1965, a domestic version of the Peace Corps that concentrated on educating disadvantaged youth.[12] In July 1971, President Richard Nixon, an opponent of the program, brought the Peace Corps under the umbrella agency ACTION. However, he was succeeded by President Jimmy Carter, an advocate of the program. Carter said that his mother, who has served as a nurse in the program, had "one of the most glorious experiences of her life" in the Peace Corps.[13] In 1979, he declared it fully autonomous in an executive order. This independent status would be further secured when Congress passed legislation in 1981 to make the organization an independent federal agency.

Programs diversified

Student in Mozambique, photographed by a Peace Corps Volunteer

At this time, the Peace Corps began branching out past its traditional concerns of education- and agriculture-related projects. In 1982, President Reagan appointee Director Loret Miller Ruppe initiated several new business-related programs. For the first time, a large number of conservative and Republican volunteers joined the contingent of overseas volunteers, and the organization continued to reflect the evolving political and social conditions in the United States.

Funding cuts during the early 1980s dropped the number of volunteers to 5,380, its lowest level since the organization's early years. Funding began to increase in 1985, and Congress passed an initiative to raise the number of volunteers to 10,000 by 1992.

After the September 11, 2001 attacks alerted the nation to growing anti-U.S. sentiment in the Middle East, President George W. Bush pledged to double the size of the organization within five years as a part of the War on Terrorism. For the 2004 fiscal year, Congress passed a budget increase at $325 million, $30 million above that of 2003 but $30 million below the President's request.

Now, the Peace Corps is trying to double the number of volunteers it sends abroad by 2007. This is in accordance with President Bush's request in 2002. According to Joseph Kennedy, "The American reputation has taken a hit in the last couple of years. The need for the Peace Corps couldn't be more urgent. The Peace Corps shows what is best in America, the generosity of spirit." The Peace Corps is trying to get more diverse volunteers of different ages. This is important so that the Peace Corps can look, according to former Director Gaddi Vasquez, "more like America." An article published by the Harvard International Review in 2006 argues that the time has come not only to expand the Peace Corps but also to revisit its mission and equip it with new technology to transform it into a 21st-century engine for peace through the global sharing of knowledge. The author, N.J.Slabbert, a writer on policy issues for the Washington DC-based Urban Land Institute, cites support for his argument from, among others, former President Jimmy Carter and a former Vice Chairman of the US Joint Chiefs of Staff, Admiral William A. Owens. [14]

In 1961 only 1 percent of volunteers were over 50, compared to 6 percent today. Peace Corps spokeswoman, Gretchen Learman states "Age is no barrier to joining the Peace Corps. In many cases, it's an asset, since senior volunteers bring so much knowledge to their work."[15] Married couples are welcome and can work together.

Executive orders

  • 1961 - 10924 - Establishment and administration of the Peace Corps in the Department of State (Kennedy)
  • 1962 - 11041 - Continuance and administration of the Peace Corps in the Department of State (Kennedy)
  • 1971 - 11603 - Assigning additional functions to the Director of ACTION (Nixon)
  • 1979 - 12137 - The Peace Corps (Carter)

Directors of the Peace Corps

Director service dates appointed by notes
1 R. Sargent Shriver 1961–1966 Kennedy Three days after President Kennedy signed an Executive Order establishing the Peace Corps, Shriver became its first director. Deployment was rapid: Volunteers arrived in five countries during 1961. In just under six years, Shriver developed programs in 55 countries with more than 14,500 Volunteers.
2 Jack Vaughn 1966–1969 Johnson Vaughn took steps to improve Peace Corps marketing, programming, and Volunteer support as large numbers of former Volunteers joined the Peace Corps staff. He also promoted volunteer assignments in conservation, natural resource management, and community development.
3 Joseph Blatchford 1969–1971 Nixon Blatchford served as head of the new ACTION agency, which encompassed U.S. domestic and foreign volunteer service programs including the Peace Corps. He created the Office of Returned Volunteers to help Volunteers serve in their communities at home, and initiated New Directions, a program emphasizing Volunteer skills.
4 Kevin O'Donnell 1971–1972 Nixon O'Donnell's appointment was the first for a former Peace Corps country director (Korea, 1966–70). He worked tirelessly to save the Peace Corps from budget cuts, and believed strongly in a non-career Peace Corps. He resigned as director six years after first joining the Peace Corps.
5 Donald Hess 1972–1973 Nixon Hess initiated training of Volunteers in the host country where they would eventually serve. With this came the greater utilization of host country nationals in the training programs. The training provided more realistic preparation, and costs dropped for the agency. Hess also sought to end the down-sizing of the Peace Corps.
6 Nicholas Craw 1973–1974 Nixon Craw sought to increase the number of Volunteers in the field and to stabilize the agency's future. He introduced a goal-setting measurement plan, the Country Management Plan, which gave a firm foundation for increased congressional support and for improved resource allocation across Peace Corps' 69 countries.
7 John Dellenback 1975–1977 Ford Dellenback worked to make the best possible health care available to Volunteers. He also placed great emphasis on recruiting generalists. He believed in taking committed applicants without specific development skills and providing concentrated training to prepare them for service.
8 Carolyn R. Payton 1977–1978 Carter Payton was the first female director and the first African American. As director, she believed strongly in reflecting America's diversity in the corps of Volunteers and worked tirelessly to convince young people that Peace Corps service would enrich their lives.
9 Richard F. Celeste 1979–1981 Carter Celeste focused on the role of women in development and was successful in involving women and minorities in the agency, particularly for staff positions. He invested heavily in training, including the development of a worldwide core curriculum, so that all Volunteers had a common context in which to work.
10 Loret Miller Ruppe 1981–1989 Reagan Ruppe was the longest-serving director and a champion of women in development. She launched the Competitive Enterprise Development program to promote business-oriented projects. She also established the Caribbean Basin Initiative, the Initiative for Central America and the African Food Systems Initiative to help address regional challenges. Ruppe was highly regarded by Volunteers for her tireless energy and enthusiasm.
11 Paul Coverdell 1989–1991 G.H.W. Bush Coverdell established two programs with a domestic focus. World Wise Schools enabled U.S. students to correspond with Volunteers serving overseas in an effort to promote international awareness and cross-cultural understanding. Fellows/USA assisted returned Volunteers in pursuing graduate studies while serving local communities in the U.S.
12 Elaine Chao 1991–1992 G.H.W. Bush Chao was the first Asian American to serve as director. She expanded Peace Corps' presence in Eastern Europe and Central Asia by establishing the first Peace Corps programs in Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, and other newly independent countries.
13 Carol Bellamy 1993–1995 Clinton Bellamy was the first RPCV (Returned Peace Corps Volunteer) (Guatemala 1963–65) to be director. She reinvigorated relations with Returned Peace Corps Volunteers and launched the first Peace Corps web site.
14 Mark D. Gearan 1995–1999 Clinton Gearan established the Crisis Corps, a program that allows returned Volunteers to help overseas communities recover from natural disasters and humanitarian crises. He supported expanding the corps of Volunteers and opened new Volunteer programs in South Africa, Jordan, Bangladesh and Mozambique.
15 Mark L. Schneider 1999–2001 Clinton Schneider was the second RPCV (El Salvador, 1966–68) to head the agency. He launched an initiative to increase Volunteers' participation in helping prevent the spread of HIV/AIDS in Africa, and also sought Volunteers to work on information technology projects to enhance development of overseas communities.
16 Gaddi Vasquez 2002–2006 G.W. Bush Gaddi H. Vasquez was the first Hispanic American to serve as director. His focus as director was to revitalize the Peace Corps through a comprehensive outreach and recruitment program focused on attracting a diverse group of Volunteers and staff. FAO.
17 Ron Tschetter September 2006 - present G.W. Bush The third RPCV to head the agency, Tschetter served in India in the mid 1960's. Confirmed by the Senate September 13, 2006[5] and sworn in on September 26, 2006.

Films

  • Yawar Mallku/ Sangre de condor/ Blood of the Condor, Director Jorge Sanjines, Bolivia 1969 - In 1971 the Peace Corps was expulsed from Bolivia partly because of this film which was immensely popular in Bolivia at the time. "The film portrayed Peace Corps volunteers in the campo as arrogant, ethnocentric, and narrow-minded imperialists out to destroy Indian culture. One particularly powerful scene showed Indians attacking a clinic while the volunteers inside sterilized Indian women against their will."[16]
  • The movie Airplane! features a flashback of Ted (Robert Hayes) and Elaine (Julie Hagerty) as Peace Corps Volunteers in Africa teaching the village men how to play basketball and giving a Tupperware demonstration to the women.
  • Volunteers, from 1985, starring Tom Hanks, Rita Wilson, and John Candy, has a cult following among many generations of Peace Corps Volunteers, and carries a ranking of 4.4 at Rotten Tomatoes.
  • In the movie Shallow Hal, Gwenyth Paltrow on seeing that Jack Blacks character doesn't recognise her (for no fault of his own), decides to continue with her plan of going and joining the Peace Corps. Black in the end to prove his love for her declares that he will join it with her.
  • In the movie Christmas with the Kranks, the Kranks' daughter, Blair, goes to serve with the Peace Corps. in Peru.

See also

References

  1. ^ "Congressman Crenshaw Honors Local Peace Corps Volunteers". United States Congressman Ander Crenshaw. 2007. Retrieved 2005-05-11.
  2. ^ "The Peace Corps in the Philippines". The Manila Times. 2007-04-21. Retrieved 2007-05-12.
  3. ^ Wilson, Jeff (2006). "Peace Corps: A Change of Mind and Heart". Whitworth College. Retrieved 2007-05-12.
  4. ^ U.S. Congress (2006). "Nominations". Congressional Record. 152 (99): S8210. Retrieved 2006-09-18. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |year= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: year (link)
  5. ^ a b U.S. Congress (2006). "Confirmations". Congressional Record. 152 (President John F. Kennedy and approved bydesigned to promote mutual understanding between Americans and the outside world Congress as a permanent agency within the United States War designed to oppose 113): S9574. Retrieved 2006-09-18. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |year= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: year (link)
  6. ^ New Frontiers for American Youth: Perspective on the Peace Corps. Public Affairs Press. 1961. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  7. ^ The Avalon Project (1997). "Inaugural Address of John F. Kennedy". The Avalon Project at Yale Law School. Retrieved 2007-05-11.
  8. ^ "Peace Corps Girl Stirs Anger In Nigeria by Alleging 'Squalor'". New York Times. 1961-10-16. p. 10. {{cite news}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Check date values in: |date= (help)
  9. ^ a b c "The infamous Peace Corps postcard". Peace Corps Writers. 2007. Retrieved 2007-05-11.
  10. ^ "Postcard to Friend Reporting 'Primitive Living' Leads to Protest by Students". New York Times. 1961-10-16. p. 10. {{cite news}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Check date values in: |date= (help)
  11. ^ a b "RIFT ON PEACE CORPS HEALING IN NIGERIA". New York Times. 1961-11-07. p. 7. {{cite news}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Check date values in: |date= (help)
  12. ^ Erani, Amy (2005). "Lyndon Johnson, Accomplishements[sic] in Office". History Central. Retrieved 2007-05-11.
  13. ^ Yee, Daniel (2005). "Jimmy Carter said his mother's service in the Peace Corps as a nurse when she was 70 years old "was one of the most glorious experiences of her life."". Peace Corps Online. Retrieved 2007-05-11.
  14. ^ Slabbert,N.J. The Technologies of Peace, Harvard International Review [http://hir.harvard.edu/articles/1336/
  15. ^ Vann,K:The Chicago Tribune, sect.5 Sept 28, 2006
  16. ^ http://peacecorpsonline.org/messages/messages/467/6056.html

Further reading

  • Jahn, GC 1992. Entomology with the Peace Corps in Thailand. American Entomologist 38(1):10-11.
  • Dillon Banerjee. 2000. So You Want to Join the Peace Corps: What to Know Before You Go. Ten Speed Press, Berkeley, California.
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