First Balkan War

First Balkan War
Part of the Balkan Wars
The territorial gains of the Balkan states after the 1st Balkan war and the line of expansion according to the prewar secret agreement between Serbia and Bulgaria.
Date October 8 1912–May 30 1913 Location Balkan Peninsula Result Balkan League victory, Treaty of London
Belligerents
Ottoman Empire	Balkan League: Bulgaria Greece Montenegro Serbia
Commanders and leaders
Nazim Pasha, Zekki Pasha, Essad Pasha, Abdullah Pasha, Ali Rizah Pasha, Hasan Tahsin Pasha	Mihail Savov Ivan Fichev, Vasil Kutinchev, Nikola Ivanov, Radko Dimitriev, Georgi Todorov Crown Prince Constantine, Panagiotis Danglis, Pavlos Kountouriotis King Nicholas I, Prince Danilo Petrović, Mitar Martinović, Janko Vukotić Radomir Putnik, Petar Bojović, Stepa Stepanović, Božidar Janković
Strength
350,000 men initially	Bulgaria 370,000 Serbia 220,000 men, Greece 115,000 men, Montenegro 44,000 men

The First Balkan War, which lasted from October 1912 to May 1913, pitted the Balkan League (Serbia, Montenegro, Greece, and Bulgaria) against the Ottoman Empire. The combined armies of the Balkan states overcame the numerically inferior and strategically disadvantaged Ottoman armies, and achieved rapid success. As a result of the war, almost all remaining European territories of the Ottoman Empire were captured and partitioned among the allies, and an independent Albanian state set up. Despite its success, Bulgaria was unsatisfied with the peace settlement and with the Ottoman threat gone, soon would start a Second Balkan War, this time against its First Balkan War allies.

Background

The Balkans before the First Balkan War

Tensions among the Balkan states over their rival aspirations to the provinces of Ottoman-controlled Roumelia, namely Eastern Roumelia, Thrace and Macedonia, subsided somewhat following intervention by the Great Powers in the mid-19th century, aimed at securing both more complete protection for the provinces' Christian majority and protection of the status quo. By 1867, Greece, Serbia and Montenegro had all secured their independence, which was confirmed by the Treaty of Berlin a decade later. But the question of the viability of Ottoman rule was revived after the Young Turk Revolution of July 1908 compelled the Sultan to restore the suspended Ottoman constitution, and the significant developments in the years 1909-1911.

Serbia's aspirations towards Bosnia and Herzegovina were thwarted by the Austrian annexation of the province in October 1908. The Serbs then focused their attention onto their historic cradle, Kosovo and further south for expansion. After the annexation the Young Turks tried to induce the Muslim population of Bosnia to emigrate to the Ottoman Empire. These immigrants were settled by the Ottoman authorities in those districts of north Macedonia where the Muslim population was weak. The experiment proved disastrous. Those elements of the population which could be induced to emigrate were largely considered to be ignorant, unruly, fanatical, and economically worthless. Their presence in Kosovo and north Macedonia proved to be a catastrophe for the Empire since they readily united with the existing population of Albanian Muslims in the series of Albanian uprisings before and during the spring of 1912. These Muslim revolutionaries were joined by some of the Ottoman troops, who had been operating against them, mostly of Albanian origin. In May 1912 the Albanians liberated Uskub/Skopje and continued towards Monastir forcing The Ottomans to recognize the autonomy of Albania (including Kosovo) in June 1912. For Serbia this was also considered problematic. After its hopes of northern expansion were closed due to Austria's annexation of Bosnia it now found the last direction of possible expansion also closing due to the creation of a Great Albania. For Serbia it meant a struggle against time to avoid the creation of the Albanian state.

The formation of the Balkan League carried on in parallel to the Albanian uprising and as the uprising was seen to be successful Serbia and Bulgaria moved closer to agreement, setting the foundations for the Balkan Wars. However through this process Bulgaria pushed Serbia into a compromise over Vardar Macedonia, using the fact Serbia was under pressure to act before the formation of an Albanian state. The agreement provided that, in the event of a victorious war against the Ottomans, Bulgaria would recive all of Macedonia south of the Kriva Palanka-Ohrid line. Serbia's expansion was to the north of this line, including Kosovo, and to the coast of the Adriatic sea to the west which includes the northern half of modern Albania giving Serbia access to the sea. If Serbia indended to honour the treaty then it had sold Macedonia to buy Albania.

Bulgaria had held a long term policy regarding the Ottomans since its creation in 1878. After the successful coup d'etat and incorporation of Eastern Rumelia, it had orchestrated a methodical scenario of indirect expansion through the creation in Ottoman occupied Macedonia of a united liberation and revolutionary organization Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization allegedly without national colour. IMRO's rhetoric claimed to be speaking generally for liberation on behalf of the “Macedonian People”. In fact it was a Bulgarian backed organization created with a secret agenda to facilitate the incorporation of Thrace (Eastern and Western) and Macedonia (Aegean and the Vardar) into a new autonomous state (in which the Bulgarian people would not be a majority), as an intermediate step, before unification with Bulgaria could take place in the same way as Eastern Rumelia. After initial success Serbia and especially Greece realized the true purpose of IMRO and consequently a vicious guerrilla war (see Macedonian Struggle) broke out between Bulgarian and Greek backed groups within Macedonia, ending when the Young Turks movement came into power in the Ottoman Empire with its democratic and modernization agenda. Bulgaria then turned to the more orthodox method of expansion through winning a war, building a large army for that purpose and started to see itself as the "Prussia of the Balkans". But even so, it was clear that Bulgaria could not win a war against the Ottomans alone.

In Greece, Army officers had revolted in August 1909 and secured the appointment of a progressive government under Eleftherios Venizelos, which they hoped would resolve the Cretan issue in Greece's favour and reverse their defeat of 1897 at the hands of the Ottomans. An emergency military reorganization had begun for that purpose led by a French military mission, but its work interrupted at the outbreak of war. In the discussions that led Greece to join the League Bulgaria refused to commit to any agreement on the distribution of territorial gains, unlike the deal with Serbia over Macedonia/Vardar. Bulgaria's diplomatic policy was to push Serbia into an agreement limiting its access to Macedonia, while at the same time refusing any such agreement with Greece, believing that its army would be able to occupy the larger part of the Aegean Macedonia and the important port city of Thessaloniki before the Greeks.

In 1911, Italy had launched an invasion of Tripolitania, which was quickly followed by the occupation of the Dodecanese Islands. The Italians' decisive military victories over the Ottoman Empire greatly influenced the Balkan states towards the possibility of winning a war against the Ottomans. Thus in the spring and summer of 1912 these consultations between the various Christian Balkan nations had resulted in a network of military alliances which became known as the Balkan League.

The Great Powers, most notably France and Austria-Hungary, reacted to this diplomatic grouping by trying to dissuade the League from going to war, but failed. In late September, both the League and the Ottoman Empire mobilized their armies. Montenegro was the first to declare war, on September 25 (O.S.)/October 8. The other three states, after issuing an impossible ultimatum to the Porte on October 13, declared war on the Empire on October 17.

Order of battle and plans

The four allies had not laid out any overall plan or made any attempt to coordinate their efforts. Instead, the war was to be conducted by each state individually, and thus it can be separated in four geographically defined fronts. Bulgarians faced the bulk of the Turkish forces, that protected the routes to Constantinople, in Thrace, with secondary operations towards Macedonia; Serbians and Montenegrins operated in Kosovo, the Sandjak, northern Macedonia and Albania; the Greeks operated in southern Macedonia in the direction of Salonica, as well as in Epirus towards Ioannina.

Bulgaria

Bulgaria, was militarily the most powerful of the four states, with a large, well-trained and well-equipped army. The peacetime army of 60,000 men was expanded during the war to 370,000, with almost 600,000 men mobilized in total, out of a population of 4,300,000. The Bulgarian field army counted for 9 infantry divisions, 1 cavalry division and 1116 artillery units. Commander-in-Chief was Tsar Ferdinand, while the actual command was in the hands of his deputy, General Michail Savov. The Bulgarians also possessed a small navy of six torpedo boats, which were restricted to operations along the country's Black Sea coast.

Bulgaria's war aims were focused on Thrace and Macedonia. It deployed its main force in Thrace, forming three armies. The First Army(79,370 men), under general Vasil Kutinchev with 3 infantry divisions, was deployed to the south of Yambol, with direction of operations along the Tundzha river. The Second Army(122,748 men), under general Nikola Ivanov, with 2 infantry divisions and 1 infantry brigade, was deployed west of the First and was assigned to capture the strong fortress of Adrianopel (now Edirne). According to the plans, the Third Army(94,884 men), under general Radko Dimitriev, was deployed east of and behind the First, and was covered by the cavalry division hiding it from the Turkish view. The Third Army had 3 infantry divisions and was assigned to cross the Stranja mountain and to take the fortress of Lozengrad (Kirk Kilisse). The 2nd(33,180 men) and 7th(48,523 men) divisions were assigned independent roles, operating in Western Thrace and eastern Macedonia respectively. Vievo is an example of a village from which the Turks were driven by the Bulgarian militia.

Serbia

Although far smaller in numbers than that of the Bulgarian army, the Serbian military strength was also considerable. Serbia called upon about 230,000 men (out of a population of 2,912,000 people) with about 228 guns, grouped in 10 infantry divisions, two independent brigades and a cavalry division, under the effective command of former War Minister Radomir Putnik. The Serbian High Command, in its pre-war wargames, had concluded that the likeliest site of the decisive battle against the Turkish Vardar Army would be on the Ovče Polje plateau, before Skopje. Hence, the main forces were formed in three armies for the advance towards Skopje, while a division and an independent brigade were to cooperate with the Montenegrins in the Sanjak of Novi Pazar.

The First Army (132,000 men) was commanded by General Petar Bojović, and was the strongest in number and force, forming the center of the drive towards Skopje. The Second Army (74,000 men) was commanded by General Stepa Stepanović, and consisted of one Serbian and one Bulgarian (7th Rila) division. It formed the left wing of the Army and advanced towards Stracin. The inclusion of a Bulgarian division was according to a pre-war arrangement between Serbian and Bulgarian army commanders, but that division ceased to obey orders of Gen. Stepanović as soon as the war began, followed only the orders of the Bulgarian High Command. The Third Army (76,000 men) was commanded by General Božidar Janković and, being the right-wing army, had the task to liberate Kosovo and then join the other armies in the expected battle at the Ovče Polje. There were also two other concentrations in northwestern Serbia, the Ibar Army (25,000 men) under General Mihail Zhivkovich and the Javor brigade (12,000 men) under Lt Colonel Milovoje Andjelkovich.

Greece

The armored cruiser Averof, flagship of the Greek fleet. At the time, she was the most modern warship of all combatant navies, and played a crucial role in the operations in the Aegean Sea.

Barbaros Hayreddin (Ottomans Flagship) and Turgut Reis were German Brandenburg Class battleships. They were more heavily protected and had more and heavier primary armament than Averof but were 5 Knots slower.

Greece (a state of 2,666,000 people) was considered the weakest of the three main allies, since it fielded the smallest army and had suffered an easy defeat against the Ottomans 16 years before in the Greco-Turkish War (1897). However Greece had a strong navy, which was vital to the League, as was the only allied navy that could possibly prevent Turkish reinforcements from being rapidly transferred by ship from Asia to Europe. As the Greek ambassador to Sofia put it during the negotiations that led to Greece's entry in the League: "Greece can provide 600,000 men for the war effort. 200,000 men in the field, and the fleet will be able to stop 400,000 men being landed by Turkey between Salonica and Gallipoli."

The army was still undergoing reorganization by a French military mission when the war began. Upon mobilization, it was grouped in two Armies. The Army of Thessaly, under Crown Prince Constantine, with Lt Gen Panagiotis Danglis as his chief of staff, but the real organizational and strategic mind behind the scene was major (later General) Ioannis Metaxas. It fielded 7 infantry divisions, a cavalry regiment and 4 independent Evzones battalions, equaling roughly 100,000 men. It was expected to overcome the fortified Turkish border positions and advance towards south and central Macedonia, aiming to take Salonica and Monastir.

Further 10,000 to 13,000 men in eight battalions were assigned to the Army of Epirus under Lt Gen Konstantinos Sapountzakis, which was intended to advance into Epirus. As it had no hope of capturing its heavily fortified capital, Ioannina, its initial mission was simply to pin down the Turkish forces there until sufficient reinforcements could be sent from the Army of Thessaly after its successful conclusion of operations.

The Greeks had a very modern navy, the heart of which was the fast armoured cruiser Averof, built in 1910. There were also 8 modern destroyers build in 1912 and 8 more built in 1906. Although the Greeks' other main surface units were rather old, it was the possession of these well-crewed new ships that ensured naval supremacy in the Aegean Sea. The bulk of the navy was assigned to the Fleet of the Aegean, placed under the command of Rear Admiral Pavlos Kountouriotis, a brilliant naval officer. Other small task forces of destroyers and torpedo boats were also assigned to scour the Aegean and Ionian seas of small Ottoman vessels.

Montenegro

The Montenegrins had a deserved reputation as hardened and experienced fighters, but their army was both small and somewhat antiquated. After completing mobilization in the first week of October, Montenegro fielded 44,500 men (out of a population of just 250,000) with 118 guns, 36,000 rifles and 44 machine guns organized in four divisions, each of three brigades. Their nominal commander-in-chief was King Nicholas, with effective command in the hands of his chief of staff, General Lazarović. The main war aim was the capture of the important city of Skadar, while secondary operations were to be carried out in Novi Pazar.

Ottoman Empire

In 1912, the Ottomans found themselves in a difficult position. They had a large population of 26,000,000 inhabitants but only 6,130,000 of them were in the European part of the Empire and of these, there were only 2,300,000 Muslims; the rest being Christians, considered unfit for conscription. The very poor transportation network especially in the Asian part dictated that the only reliable way in mass-transfering troops to the European theater was by sea, but that was under question due to the presence of the Greek fleet of the Aegean Sea. They were also still engaging in a protracted war with the Italians in Libya (and by now in Aegean's Dodecanese), which had dominated the Ottoman's sea a year now and lasted until 15 October, a few days after the outbreak of hostilities in the Balkans. They were therefore unable to significantly reinforce their positions in the Balkans as the relations with the Balkan states deteriorated over the course of the year.

The Ottomans' military capabilities were hampered by instability caused by the Young Turk Revolution and the counter revolutionary coup several months later (see Countercoup (1909) and 31 March Incident). An effort had been made to reorganize the army by a German mission, but its effects had not taken hold. The regular army (Nizam) was well-equipped and trained active divisions, but the reserve units (Redif) that reinforced the regular army consisted of conscripted men, were ill equipped (especially in artillery) and trained.

The Ottomans had three armies in Europe (the Macedonian, the Vardar and the Thracian) with 1,203 pieces of mobile and 1,115 fixed artillery on fortified areas. Western Group of Armies in Macedonia fielded at least 200,000 men detailed against the Greek and the Serbian-Montenegro Armies and the First Army in Thrace had at least 115,000 men detailed against the Bulgarian Army.

The Army against Bulgarians in Thrace under Nazim Pasa had seven corps of 11 Infantry, 13 Redifs and 1+ Cavalry divisions. The I Corps with 3 divisions (2-, and 3 Infantry and 1 Provisional divisions). The II Corps with 3 divisions (4-, 5 Infantry and Usak Redif divisions). The III Corps with 4 divisions (7-, 8-, 9- Infantry and the Afyon Karahisar Redif divisions). The IV Corps with 3 divisions (12- Infantry, Izmit and Bursa Redifs division). The XVII Corps with 3 divisions (Samsun, Ergli and Izmir Redifs divisions). Adrianople Fortified Area with 6+ divisions (10 and 11 Infantry, Adrianople, Babaeski and Gumulcine Redif and the Fortress division, 4th Rifle and 12th Cavalry regiments). Kircaali Detachment with 2+ divisions (Kircaali Redif, Kircaali Mustahfiz division and 36 Infantry regiment). An independent Cavalry division and the 5th light cavalry brigade

The Western Group of Armies (Macedonian and Vardar) was composed of ten Corps with 32 Infantry and two Cavalry divisions.

Against the Serbs the Vardar Army (staff in Uskup under Halepli Zeki Pasa) with five Corps of 18 Infantry divisions, one Cavalry division and two independent Cavalry brigades under the: V Corps with 4 divisions (13, 15, 16 Infantry and the Istip Redif) VI Corps with 4 divisions (17, 18 Infantry and the Monastir and Drama Redifs) VII Corps with 3 division (19 Infantry and Uskup and Pristine Redifs) II Corps with 3 divisions (Usak, Denicli and Izmir Redifs) Sanjak Corps with 4 divisions (20-, 60 Infantry, Mitrovice Redif Division, Taslica Redif Regiment, Firzovik and Taslica Detachment) The Independent Cavalry Division and the 7 and 8 Cavalry Brigades.

The Macedonian Army (staff in Salonika under Ali Riza Pasa) was composed of 14 divisions (five Corps) detailed against Greece, Bulgaria and Montenegro:

Against Greece 7 divisions: VIII Corps with 3 divisions (22 Infantry and Naslic and Aydin Redifs). Yanya Corps with 3 divisions (23 Infantry, Yanya Redif and Bizani Fortified). The Salonika Redif division and Karaburun Detachment as independent units.

Against Bulgaria in Macedonia with 2 divisions under the Ustruma Corps (14- Infantry, Serez Redif divisions and Nevrekop Detachment)

Against Montenegro 4+ divisions: Iskodra Corps with 2+ divisions (24 Infantry, Elbasan Redif, Iscodra Fortified Area and Ipec Detachment) and an Independent Corps with 2 divisions (21 Infantry and Pirzeren Redif divisions)

According to the organizational plan the men of the Western Group had to be 598,000. But slow mobilization procedures and the poor railroad efficiency reduced drastically the available men. When war began, according to the Western army Staff there were only 200,000 men available. Although during the next period more men reached the units, due to the war casualties, the Western Group never neared its organizational floor. In time of war the Ottomans planned to bring more troops in from Syria, both Nizamiye and Redif. Greek naval supremacy over Aegean prevented those reinforcements from arriving. Instead those soldiers had to deploy via a land route, and most never made it to the Balkans.

The Ottoman General staff, assisted by the German Military Mission, developed 12 war plans. The war plans were designed to counter various combinations of opponents. Work on plan #5, which was against a combination of Bulgaria, Greece, Serbia and Montenegro, was very advanced, and had been sent to the Army staffs for them to develop local plans.

Operations

Montenegro started the First Balkan War by declaring war against the Ottomans on September 25 (O.S.)/October 8, 1912.

The Bulgarian theater of operations

Bulgarians overrun the Turkish positions en bayonette.

The Bulgarian attack at Chataldzha en bayonette.

File:Conquered Ayvaz Baba Fort at Adrianople.jpg

The Bulgarian soldiers in the Ayvaz Baba fort outside Adrianople after its capture.

The first great battles were against the Adrianople - Kirk Kilisse defensive line, where the Bulgarian 1st and 3rd Armies (together 110,000 men) defeated the Ottoman East Army (130,000 men) near Gechkenli, Seliolu and Petra when Ottoman's XV Corps urgently left the area to defend Galipoli peninsula against a Greek amphibious assault which never took place. The loss of the XV Corps created an immediate vacuum between Adrianople and Dimetoka effectively spliting the Ottoman front in two. As a consequence the fortress of Adrianople with some 61,250 men was isolated and besieged and Kirk Kilisse was taken without resistance under the pressure of the Bulgarian Third Army.

The Bulgarian high command then decided to wait a few days, allowing the Turks to occupy defensive positions on the Luleburgaz-Karaagach-Bunarhisar line. Despite this, the initial Bulgarian attack by First and Third Army defeated the Turkish forces, numbering some 130,000, and reached the Sea of Marmara. But the Turks, with the aid of fresh reinforcements from the Asian provinces, established their third and strongest defensive position at the Chataldja Line.

Meanwhile the forces of the Bulgarian 2nd Thracian division divided into the Haskovo and Rhodope detachments advanced toward the Aegean Sea. The Ottoman forces of 30,000 men in the area failed to offer serious resistence and on 26 November their commander Yaver Pasha was captured together with 10,131 officers and men. After the occupation of Salonika from the Greek army, his surrender completed the isolation of the Macedonia Ottoman Army from the Eastern Ottoman Army.

On November 4/17, the offensive against Chataldja Line just outside Constantinople started although the Russia had sent clear warnings that if Bulgarians occupied Constantinople it will attack them. This was an early evidence of the lack of realistic thinking of the Bulgarian leadership. The Bulgarians launched their attack along the defensive line with 176,351 men and 462 artillery pieces against Ottomans 140,571 men and 316 artillery pieces, but despite Bulgarian superiority, the Ottomans succeded to repulse them. An armistice was agreed on November 20/December 3 between the Ottomans and Bulgaria, also representing Serbia and Montenegro and peace negotiations began in London. Greece also participated in the conference, but refused to agree to a truce, continuing its operations in the Epirus sector. But negotiations were interrupted, on January 23/February 9, when a Young Turk coup d'état in Constantinople under Enver Pasha overthrew the government of Kamil Pasha. Upon expiration of the armistice, on February 16, hostilities recommenced.

On 7 February Ottoman forces of the X Corps with 19,858 men and 48 guns landed at Şarköy and together with the frontal attack from the direction of the Gallipoli peninsula at Bulair of around 15,000 men supported by 36 guns (part of the Ottoman Gallipoli army of around 30,000 men) and naval gun fire. It was an operation which was intended in the long term to relieve pressure on Adrianople. Confronting them were about 10,000 men with 78 guns. Ottomans were probably unaware for the presence of the newly formed 4th Bulgarian army of 92,289 men under General Stilian Kovachev. Their attack in the thin isthmus having a front of just 1,800m, was hampered by thick fog and strong Bulgarian artillery and machinegun fire. As a result the attacking forces broke leading to a Bulgarian counterattack. By the end of the day both armies had returned to their original positions. Meanwhile the Ottoman X Corps which had landed at Şarköy advanced until by 10 February the reinforcements send by general Kovachev succeded in halted them. Cassualties on both sides were extremely light. After the negative result of the frontal attack in Bulair, the Ottoman forces of Sarkoy reembarked their ships in 11 February and transported to Gallipoli.

The Ottomans also began an attack on 7 February against the Bulgarian First and Third Armies in Çatalca. As the attack launched only to divert attention from the Gallipoli-Şarköy operation, the Ottomans surprised from its success. In the north the Bulgarians forced to withdrew about fifteen km and to the south over twenty to their secondary positions. With the end of the attack in Gallipoli the Ottomans canceled the operation, reluctant to leave Chatadza Line, but several days passed before Bulgarians realized that the offensive was over. By 15 February the front had again stabilized. The Bulgarians had suffered heavy casualties. The battle could be characterized at the tactical level as an Ottoman victory but strategically was inconclusive. The offensive was never intended to be a knockout blow; it was simply designed to pin the 1st and 3rd Armies in situ against the operations to the south.

The result of the Şarköy-Bulair battles sealed Adrianople's fate. On 11 March, the final Bulgarian assault started with Allied forces enjoying a crushing superiority over Ottoman garrison. Under the command of General Georgi Vazov the Bulgarian 2nd Army with 153,700 men and two Serb divisions with 47,275 men eventually conquered the city but at a high price. Bulgarians suffering 8093 killed wounded or missing and the Serb gave 1462 killed and wounded. The Bulgarians captured 19,750 prisoners. The Ottoman's casualties from the start of the siege had reached 13,000 killed (unknown wounded) Bulgarian losses for the entire Adrianople campaign were 18,282. According to both R.C.Hall and E.J.Erickson the assault was an unnecessary bloodshed, it was more of a political desicion and took place only to inflate the national pride of Tsar Ferdinand and some Bulgarian politicians since the fortress had to surrender by late of the month due to starvation. The most important result however was that now the Ottoman command lost all hopes of regaining the initiative which made any further fighting pointless.

The Greek theater of operations

Macedonian front

Greek operations during the First Balkan War (borders depicted are post-Second Balkan War)

Greek artillerymen during close fighting

File:Greek infantry 1912.jpg

Greek infantrymen in the battle of Sarantaporos

File:Turks prisoners.jpg

Ottomans prisoners of war in Greek hands. After the battle of Gianitsa Greek Army took 26,000 of them

Ottoman's intelligence had disastrously misread Greek military intentions. In retrospect, it would appear that the Ottoman staffs believed that the Greek attack would be balanced on the major avenues of approach, to Macedonia and to Epirus. The 2nd Army staff had therefore evenly balanced the combat strength of the seven Ottoman divisions between the Yania (Epirus) and VIII (South Macedonian) Corps. This was a fatal decision for the Western Group of Armies leading to the early loss of the strategic center of all three Macedonian fronts, the city of Salonika, a loss that sealed Western army's fate. Greek army had also seven divisions but having the initiative, concentrated all seven against the VIII Corps using only a number of independent battalions in the Epirus front. This gave them the necessary superiority in arms to crush Ottoman's VIII Corps.

With the declaration of war the Greek Army of Thessaly under Crown Prince Constantine advanced rapidly to the north, successfully overcoming Ottoman opposition in the Battle of Sarantaporo. After a renewed victory at Giannitsa (October 20/November 2), the city and its garrison of 26,000 men surrendered to the Greeks on October 27 (O.S.)/November 9. The surrender of Salonika was a disaster for the Ottoman army in which two Corps HQs (Ustruma and VIII) two Nizamiye divisions (14, 22) and four Redif divisions (Salonika, Drama, Naslic and Serez) were lost to the Ottoman order of battle. Additionally, the Turks lost 70 artillery pieces 30 machine guns and 70,000 rifles (Salonika was the center depot for the Western Armies). The Turks estimated that 15,000 officers and men had been killed during the campaign of south Macedonia, bringing total losses up to 41,000 soldiers. Another decisive consequence was that the destruction of the Macedonian Army isolated the Ottoman's Vardar Army ensuring its own destruction.

Learning the outcome of the battle of Gianitsa, the Bulgarian high command urgently dispatched their 7th 'Rila' division from the north in the direction of the city, arrived there a week later, the day after its surrender to the Greeks. Until November 10, the Greek-occupied zone had been expanded to the line from Lake Doirani to the Pangaion mountain west to Kavalla. In western Macedonia however, the lack of coordination between the allies cost the Greeks a setback in the Battle of Vevi on 2/15 November; when their 5th Division crossed its way with VI Ottoman Corps (as part of the Vardar Army with 16, 17 and 18 Nizamiye divisions) on retreat, after the battle of Prilep against the Serbs, to Albania. The Greek division surprised by the presence of the Ottoman's Corps and outnumbered by the now counterattacking Turks centered on Monastir, forced to retreat, meant that the city was eventually captured by the Serbs.

Epirus front

At Epirus front the Greek army was heavily outnubered, but due to the passive attitude of the Ottomans had successfully conquered Preveza (October 21, 1912) pushing north to the Ioannina direction. On November 5, a small force from Corfu made a landing and captured the coastal area of Himara without facing significant resistance and on November 20 Greek troops from western Macedonia, entered Korce. However, Greek forces in the Epirot front had not the numerical support to initiate an offensive against the German-designed defensive positions of Bizani that protected the city of Ioannina and therefore had to wait for reinforcements from the Macedonian front.

After the campaign in Macedonia was complete, a part of the Macedonian Army under the Crown Prince was redeployed to Epirus. In the Battle of Bizani the Ottoman positions were breached and Ioannina taken on 22 February 1913/6 March 1913 allowing the Greek army to continue its advance to northern Epirus (southern part of modern Albania). After liberating the Greek populated area, it stoped, although the Serbian line of occupation was very close to the north.

On 8 February 1913, Russian pilot N. de Sackoff became the first pilot ever shot down in combat when his biplane was hit by ground fire following bomb run on the walls of Fort Bizani during the First Balkan War. Flying for the Greeks, he came down near small town of Preveza, on the coast north of the Aegean island of Lefkas, secured local Greek assistance, repaired his plane and resumed flight back to base.

Naval battles

At sea, the Greek fleet took action since the first day of the war. From 6 October until 20 December 1912, Greek naval and army detachments seized almost all islands of the Eastern and North Aegean sea, and established a forward base at Moudros bay in Lemnos, controlling the exits of the Dardanelles. Lieutenant Nikolaos Votsis scored a major success for Greek morale on 8 November, when he sailed his torpedo boat under the cover of night into the harbor of Thessaloniki and sank the old Ottoman ironclad Feth-i-Bulend.

The Ottoman fleet remained inside the Dardanelles for the early part of the war; but when the land war took a critical turn against the Ottoman army, necessitating the urgent reinforcement of the European theater, the Ottoman fleet tried to enter the Aegean. Its sortie, on 3/16 December 1912 was defeated in the Naval Battle of Elli, largely through the tactical initiative of Rear Admiral Pavlos Kountouriotis and the superior speed of the Greek flagship, Georgios Averof. The Ottoman Admiralty then decided to send the light cruiser Hamidiye, captained by Rauf Orbay, to create a diversion by raiding Greek merchant shipping in Aegean, in an attempt to draw the Averof in pursuit and leave the remainder of the Greek fleet weakened. Hamidiye scored a few successes sinking some merchant ships and bombarding minor Greek harbors before leaving Aegean for the Eastern Mediterranean. Orders were indeed sent to Kountouriotis ordering him to hunt Hamidiye down. Kountouriotis however, having guessed the Ottoman plan, refused, and four days later, on 5/18 January 1913, when the Ottoman fleet again exited the Straits, it was defeated for a second time in the Naval Battle of Lemnos. It was the last attempt of the Ottoman navy to leave the Dardanelles, thereby leaving the Greek navy dominant in the Aegean. Gen. Ivanov, commander of the 2nd Bulgarian Army acknowledged the role of the Greek fleet in the overall Balkan League victory by stating that "The activity of the entire Greek fleet was the chief factor in the general success of the allies".

The Serb-Montenegrin theater of operations

The Serbian Army dealt three decisive victories in Macedonia, its primary objective in the war, effectively destroying the Ottoman forces in the region and conquering Macedonia. They also helped the Montenegrins to take Sanjak and send two divisions to help the Bulgarians at the siege of Adrianople,which was later conquered by the Bulgarian and Serbian forces. The last battle for Macedonia was the battle of Monastir in which the Ottoman army was decimated by General Putnik, later promoted to Duke.

After Great Powers pressure the Serbs started to withdraw from northern Albania living the Montenegrins to continue Shkodra's sieg alone. At 23 April 1913 the fortress' garrison forced to surrender on Ottoman's initiation due to starvation.

Conclusion of the war and aftermath

The Treaty of London ended the First Balkan War on 30 May 1913. All Ottoman territory west of the Ainos-Medea line was ceded to the Balkan League, according to the status quo at the time of the armistice. The treaty also declared Albania to be an independent state. Almost all of the territory that was declared to form the Albanian state was currently occupied by either Greece or Serbia, which only reluctantly withdrew their troops. Having unresolved disputes with Serbia over the division of the north Macedonia and with Greece over south the Macedonia, Bulgaria was determined to solve the problems by force, so refused to demobilize its army. Seeing the omens Greece and Serbia settled their mutual differences and signed a military alliance on May 1, 1913, followed by a treaty of "mutual friendship and protection" on May 19/June 1, 1913. By this, the scene for the Second Balkan War was set.

Battles of the First Balkan War
Name	Attacking	Commander	Defending	Commander	Date	Winner
Battle of Sarantaporo	Greeks	Crown Prince Constantine	Ottomans		Oct 22 1912	Greeks
Battle of Giannitsa	Greeks	Crown Prince Constantine	Ottomans	Hasan Tahsin Pasha	Nov 1 1912	Greeks
Battle of Kumanovo	Serbians	Gen. Radomir Putnik (promoted to Vojvoda after the battle)	Ottomans	Gen. Zeki Pasha	Oct 23 1912	Serbians
Battle of Kırk Kilise	Bulgarians	Gen. Radko Dimitriev, Gen. Ivan Fichev	Ottomans	Mahmut Muhtar Pasha	Oct 24 1912	Bulgarians
Battle of Pente Pigadia	Ottomans	Esat Pasha	Greeks	Lt. Gen. Konstantinos Sapountzakis	Nov 6-12 1912	Greeks
Battle of Prilep	Serbians		Ottomans		Nov 3 1912	Serbians
Battle of Lule-Burgas	Bulgarians	Gen. Radko Dimitriev, Gen. Ivan Fichev	Ottomans	Abdullah Pasha	Oct 28-31 1912	Bulgarians
Battle of Vevi	Greeks		Ottomans		Nov 15 1912	Ottomans
Battle of Bitola	Serbians	Gen. Petar Bojović	Ottomans	Zeki Pasha (Gen.)	Nov 16-19 1912	Serbians
Naval Battle of Kaliakra	Bulgarians	Cap. Dimitar Dobrev	Ottomans	Hűseyin Rauf Bey Rauf Orbay	21 Nov 1912	Bulgarians
Naval Battle of Elli	Greeks	Rear Adm. Pavlos Kountouriotis	Ottomans	Adm Remzi Bey	Dec 16 1912	Greeks
Battle of Bulair	Ottomans	Fethi Bey	Bulgarians	Gen. Georgi Todorov	Jan 26 1913	Bulgarians
Battle of Şarköy	Ottomans	Enver Bey	Bulgarians	Gen. Stiliyan Kovachev	26-28 Jan 1913	Bulgarians
Naval Battle of Lemnos	Greeks	Rear Adm. Pavlos Kountouriotis	Ottomans		Jan 18 1913	Greeks
Battle of Bizani	Greeks	Crown Prince Constantine	Ottomans	Esat Pasha	Mar 5-6 1913	Greeks
Siege of Adrianople	Bulgarians & Serbians	Gen. Georgi Vazov, Gen. Stepa Stepanovic	Ottomans	Gen. Gazi Ṣűkrű Pasha	Mar 11-13 1913	Bulgarians & Serbians

See also

• History of the Serbian-Turkish wars
• Second Balkan War

Sources

• Erickson, Edward J. (2003). Defeat in Detail: The Ottoman Army in the Balkans, 1912-1913. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 0275978885. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
• Hall, Richard C. (2000). The Balkan Wars, 1912-1913: Prelude to the First World War. Routledge. ISBN 0415229464.
• Schurman, Jacob Gould (2004). The Balkan Wars 1912 To 1913. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 1419153455.