Chinese martial arts

This article provides a general overview of Chinese martial arts. For a list of styles, see List of Chinese martial arts.

Chinese martial arts (often abbreviated as "CMA") refers to the enormous variety of martial art styles native to China.

Kung fu and wushu are two popular Chinese terms that are commonly used as a synonym for Chinese martial arts. They appear by this use in many languages, including English and Chinese. For more information about their original meaning and other uses, see kung fu (term) and wushu (term).

History of Chinese martial arts

The oldest evidence of martial arts in China goes back to the Zhou dynasty (1111-255 BC). There are passages in the Zhuang Zi (AKA Chuang Tzu) that clearly pertain to the psychology and practice of martial arts. The Dao De Jing by Lao Zi contains many principles that are applicable to martial arts, and is similar in point of view to the Sun Zi Bing Fa (Sun Zi's Art of War) which deals directly with martial arts. History says that Zhuang Zi lived during the reign of King Hui of Liang and King Xuan of Qi, which means that he must have lived within the span from 370 BC to 301 BC. The dates of the author of the Dao De Jing are less clear. Tradition assigns him to a time earlier than Zhuang Zi, but the evidence indicates that the book itself was written down later than the time of Zhuang Zi. Chinese wrestling (Shuai_jiao) has express written reference in the reign of Emperor Wu of the Han dynasty (reigned 140 BCE to 88 BCE). The six arts (liu yi) mentioned in the curriculum of the late Zhou dynasty or early Han dynasty ritual text, the Zhou Li, include archery and charioteering.

In legend, wushu traces its origins thousands of years into antiquity. The wushu that is practised today developed over the centuries and many of the later additions of wushu, such as the Shaolin Wushu style, later animal forms, and the drunken style were incorporated from various other martial arts forms that came into existence later.

In regard to the Shaolin style of wushu that is currently popular, a legend extant since 1624 CE originally attributed Bodhidharma (Pu Tai Ta Mo in Chinese or Daruma Daishi in Japanese), a Central Asia or South Asian monk, as the progenitor. However, the texts that first attributed him to Shaolin Kung Fu have been shown to be unlikely forgeries. Historical evidence has shown that the Shaolin monks during and before this time harboured retired soldiers who taught the monks self-defence techniques that they had learned during military training. Around 500 AD the Shaolin monks, in order to protect themselves from bandits and criminals, began to codify what they had learned into a "Shaolin" Kung-Fu style; however, the development of Wushu (or general martial arts in China) goes back centuries before this.

Many Chinese martial arts, and several Japanese martial arts, claim to have originated from the teachings of the legendary Buddhist culture hero Bodhidharma at the Shaolin Temple (少林寺) (a Chan Buddhist monastery) when he is said to have moved to China sometime circa the 6th century CE. Researchers regard this claim with considerable skepticism, since historical record and modern archaeology report earlier sources for some techniques and schools dating as far back as 5000 B.C. Further, the first texts attributing Bodhidharma to Shaolin Kung Fu were not written until 1624 CE, 1000 years after the founding of the Shaolin temple. However, the Shaolin Temple, located in the Henan (河南) province near the city of Dengfeng, has had centuries of long tradition of fostering the martial arts as it has provided refuge for martial artists with widely differing techniques from all over China.

To be merged

The oldest evidence of Kung Fu, or Chinese martial arts goes back to the Zhou dynasty (1111-255 BC). There are passages in the Zhuang Zi (AKA Chuang Tzu) that clearly pertain to the psychology and practice of martial arts. The Tao Te Ching by Lao Zi contains many principles that are applicable to martial arts, and is similar in point of view to the Sun Zi Bing Fa (Sun Zi's Art of War) which deals directly with martial arts. History says that Zhuang Zi lived during the reign of King Hui of Liang and King Xuan of Qi, which means that he must have lived within the span from 370 B.C. to 301 B.C. The dates of the author of the Tao Te Ching are less clear. Tradition assigns him to a time earlier than Zhuang Zi, but the evidence indicates that the book itself was written down later than the time of Zhuang Zi. The Chinese writing system traces back to the dynasty that preceded the Zhou, the Shang (traditional dates 1766 BC - 1122 BC), so claims of entire books being written at even earlier times are strongly suspect.

According to some traditions, however, the first written history of Chinese martial arts comes from the reign of the legendary Yellow Emperor (traditional date of ascension to the throne, 2698 BC). The Yellow Emperor is described as a famous military general, who, before becoming China’s leader, wrote a lengthy treatise about martial arts. He is also credited with being the founder of China’s oldest known martial art – chang quan (long fist). Furthermore, Taoist monks are claimed to have been practicing physical exercises that resemble Tai Chi (or a soft form of Kung fu) at least as early as the 500 B.C. era. In 39-92 A.D. , "Six Chapters of Hand Fighting", were included in the Han Shu (history of the Former Han Dynasty) written by Pan Ku. Also, the noted physician, Hua T'uo, is said to have composed the "Five Animals Play" - tiger, deer, monkey, bear, and bird, around 220 A.D. As stated earlier, the Kung Fu that is practiced today developed over the centuries and many of the later additions to Kung Fu, such as the Shaolin Kung Fu style, later animal forms, and the drunken style were incorporated from various martial arts forms that came into existence later on in China and have accurate historical data relating to their inventors.

Today, popular kung fu styles include Bagua Zhang (Pa Kua Chang), Choy Li Fut, Drunken boxing, Eagle Claw Kung Fu, Hsing I (Xing Yi), Hung Gar (Hongjia), Lau Gar, Shuai Chiao (Shuaijiao), Monkey Kung Fu, Praying Mantis Kung Fu (Tanglang Quan), Shaolin, White Crane, Wing Chun and T'ai Chi Ch'uan.

Styles of Chinese martial arts

Hundreds of different styles of Chinese martial arts have developed over the past two thousand years, many distinctive styles with their own sets of techniques and ideas. Also, there are many themes common to different styles that lead many to characterize them as belonging to generalized "families" (家, jiā) of martial art styles. There are styles that mimic movements from animals and others that gather inspiration from various Chinese philosophies. Some styles put most of their focus into the belief of the harnessing of qi energy, while others concentrate solely on competition and exhibition.

Chinese martial arts can be split into various categories to differentiate them: For example, external (外家拳) and internal (内家拳) (or hard (剛) and soft (柔)). Chinese martial arts can also be categorized by location, as in northern (北拳) and southern (南拳) as well, referring to what part of China the styles originated from, separated by the Yangtze River (Chang Jiang); Chinese martial arts can even be classified according to their province or city. Chinese martial arts can also be divided according to religion, aspect (such as imitative-styles (像形拳)), and more. For a list of styles, see list of Chinese martial arts.

Styles of Wushu (to be merged)

Literally hundreds of different styles and schools of Wushu still exist in China, but generally they can be divided into a few distinct branches. Geographically, Wushu can be divided into Northern Shaolin-style Wushu and Southern Shaolin-style Wushu, mainly corresponding to either the Northern Shaolin temple or the Southern Shaolin temple, although nowadays the terms cover all kinds of styles originating either from the north or the south. The main difference about these two are that the Northern styles tend to emphasize kicks, jumps and generally fluid and rapid movement, as the Southern styles focus more on strong arm and hand techniques, and stable, immovable stances and footwork. Examples of the Northern styles include Changquan and the sword and broadsword routines used in contemporary Wushu competitions, and examples of the Southern styles include Nanquan, Houquan (monkey style) and Wing Chun.

Methodistically, Wushu can be divided into either the External styles, which include most of the Wushu styles in existence, and the Internal styles, which number only a few, Taijiquan being the most famous one. External styles are more traditional fighting arts, with emphasis on strength, speed, explosive power and stamina. Internal styles focus in the precise control of movements, the balance of bodily energies and the concept of Qi (same as the Japanese Ki), the life energy supposedly flowing through every human being. As said above, External styles include all other types of Wushu, except for Taijiquan, Xingyiquan, Baguazhang and Liu He Ba Fa.

External or hard styles (外家拳 wàijiāquán)

These styles are what most people associate with Chinese martial arts. They are generally fast and explosive, focusing on physical strength and agility. External styles can be both the traditional styles focusing on application and fighting, as well as the modern styles adapted for competition and exercise. Examples of external styles are Shaolinquan, with its direct explosive attacks and high-kicking aerial maneuvers that resemble those of Korean Taekwondo, and the many animal styles inspired by the movements of certain animals. External styles begin with a training focus on muscular power, speed and application, and generally integrate their qigong aspects in advanced training, after their desired "hard" physical level has been reached.

Internal or soft styles (內家拳 nèijiāquán)

Internal or "soft" styles focus on the practice of what they call "internal" elements, such as awareness of the spirit, mind, qi (breath) and the use of relaxed leverage rather than muscular tension, tension that soft stylists call "brute force". Some internal stylists say that the difference between internal and external for them is mostly the distinction of the inside and the outside of the body. The reason for the label "internal," according to most schools, is that there is a focus on the internal aspects earlier in the training, once these internal relationships are apprehended (the theory goes) they are then applied to the external applications of the styles in question. Because of the extended periods of time that beginning students are expected to work on very basic principles in most internal schools, and perhaps also the prevalence in recent years of many Western "New Age" oriented schools who are accused by traditionalists of emphasizing philosophy and speculation at the expense of hard work (see the next paragraph), many people believe internal styles lack "external" physical training. In the older schools, however, much time is spent on basic physical work, such as stance training (zhan zhuang), stretching and strengthening of muscles, as well as on empty hand and weapon forms which can contain quite demanding coordination from posture to posture. Also, many internal styles have basic two-person training, such as pushing hands. The forms of most internal styles are performed slowly, though some also include sudden outbursts of explosive movements, such as those the Chen style of Taijiquan is famous for teaching earlier than some other styles. The reason for the generally slow pace is to improve coordination and balance by increasing the work load, and to require the student to pay minute attention to their whole body and its weight as they perform a technique. At an advanced level, and in actual fighting, internal styles are performed quickly, but the goal is to learn to involve the entire body in every motion, to stay relaxed, with deep, controlled breathing, and to coordinate the motions of the body and the breathing accurately according to the dictates of the forms while maintaining perfect balance. Internal styles have been associated historically, in legend, and in much popular fiction with the Taoist monasteries of Wudangshan in central China.

Today, only a few traditional schools teaching internal styles train martially, even though such training was originally a part of all internal styles. This is especially evident in schools located outside of China. Most schools teach forms that are practiced for the physical benefits only, as this is what most modern students are looking for and as these students seldom have the time or devotion to reach far enough in their training to start focusing on the martial aspects. To condition oneself well enough to become adept at the soft style martial arts is a long-term proposition; many simply lose interest after a few years and never finish the program. Also, many people who have not fully learned the martial aspects of their style judge themselves qualified to teach what they do know publicly anyway, leading to a further diminution of the martial applications taught in many schools. Some of such instructors supplement what they are teaching with elements from other schools, hard or soft, and their training becomes further removed from the original art. While this gradual watering-down of technique has made some external aspects of internal styles available for a wider audience who are interested in the purported health benefits of the internal schools, traditional schools see a complete martial syllabus as a fundamental, defining part of their art, both for health and self-defense purposes. They claim that while the students may not need to practice external applications to derive a benefit from the training, their teachers should know the applications well, to ensure that the movements are trained correctly, effectively and safely. For these reasons traditionalists feel that a school not teaching martial aspects somewhere in their syllabus cannot be said to be actually teaching the art itself, that they have "graduated themselves", and that they are much less likely to be able to reproduce the health benefits that have made complete internal systems famous in the first place.

While the principles that distinguish internal styles from the external were described at least as early as the 18th century by Chang Nai-chou, the modern terms distinguishing external and internal styles were first recorded by Sun Lutang; who wrote that Taijiquan, Baguazhang, and Xingyiquan were internal arts. Later on, others began to include other styles in this definition, including Liuhexinyiquan, Liuhebafa, Yiquan and some even include Aikido.

Northern styles

These are styles that have evolved from northern parts of China such as Henan province and the Shaolin Temple. It is said that northern styles put more focus on legwork, kicking and acrobatics. Some say this is because the northern Chinese were generally taller than those living in southern China, and that they made their styles take advantage of their greater range of motion, especially in their legs. Others claim that the terrain of northern China is more suitable to kicking techniques. An example of a northern style is the modern Changquan (Long Fist) that is the most popular style in the forms division in most contemporary Chinese martial arts competitions held around the world today. There are many northern styles; some of them are Tanglangquan, Chuojiao (戳腳), Bajiquan, Taijiquan, Baguazhang, Yingzhaoquan, and Chaquan (查拳).

Southern styles

Southern styles are styles originally practiced in southern China, in the provinces south of the Yangtze River (Chang Jiang). There are sayings that because of their shorter height, the southern Chinese developed styles that were direct and powerful, mainly developing their upper body strength and speed. A generalized Nanquan (Southern Fist) style has become a popular class in modern Chinese martial arts competitions. It is similar to Changquan (Long Fist) but includes more rapid punches and blocks, and less legwork and jumps. Some Southern styles include Hung Gar, Wing Chun, and Choy Lay Fut. ....

Buddhist styles

Buddhist styles are styles that were created or trained mostly within Buddhist temples (primarily Chan Buddhism) or by Buddhist monks, later on spreading out to laymen. These styles often include Buddhist philosophy, imagery, numbers, and principles. The most famous are arts from the Shaolin Temple and descendant arts, like Shaolinquan, Luohanquan, Hung Gar, Wing Chun and White Crane. Shaolinquan places much emphasis on having a balance between the hard (offensive) and soft (defensive) elements.

Daoist styles

Daoist styles are styles that were created or trained mostly within Daoist Temples or by Daoist ascetics, which often later spread out to laymen. These styles include those trained in the Wudang temple, and often include Daoist principles, philosophy, and imagery. Some of these arts include Taijiquan, Wudangquan, Baguazhang, and Huolongzhang.

Muslim styles

Muslim styles are those that were practiced traditionally solely or mainly by the Muslim Hui minority in China. These styles often include Muslim principles or imagery. Some of these styles include Chaquan, Xinyiliuhequan, and Qishiquan.

Training in Chinese martial arts

Most styles of Chinese martial arts contain practice of the application of techniques (both as prepared drills and as free sparring), but also the practice of what is known as forms, or taolu (套路 - tào lù) in Chinese. Forms are a pre-choreographed series of techniques and movements, performed alone or with one or more partners.

Another important part of the training, as in most other physical activities, is what is referred to as basics, such as various exercises for strengthening the body, and regular stretching.

Basics (基本功)

Basics are a vital part of the training, as a student cannot progress to the more advanced stages without them; without strong and flexible muscles, many movements of Chinese martial arts are simply impossible to perform correctly. Basics include such things as stretching, strengthening of muscles, bones and tendons, stamina training, and basic stances, kicks and punches. Some styles also consider jumping, jump-kicks and acrobatics basics. In addition, many styles teach a few basic techniques as well, before moving on to forms. These techniques are normally the most common techniques of the specific style, found in many of the style's forms.

Chinese martial arts pay considerable attention to stretching. Common stretching exercises include general warm-up stretching, stretching in pairs, and various types of stretch kicks, usually practiced with speed. As many Chinese martial arts are formed to suit children and higher-level students who have been practicing since childhood, they can include basic exercises that require very high flexibility in order to be possible to perform at all.

Forms (套路)

Forms or taolu are series of techniques put together after one another so they can be practiced as one whole set of movements.

Application

Application training or sparring refers to the training of putting the martial techniques to use. When and how applications are taught varies from style to style, but in the beginning, most styles focus on certain drills where each person knows what technique is being practiced and what attack to expect. Chinese martial arts usually contain a large arsenal of techniques and make use of the whole body, efficiency and effectiveness is what the techniques are based on. However many chinese martial arts appear to be flowery and 'fancier' than other arts but the movements are very meaningful in terms of application. Gradually, fewer and fewer rules are applied, and the students learn how to react and feel what technique to use, depending on the situation and the type of opponent.

Nowadays, many Chinese martial arts choose not to practice much application at all, as the need for self-defense has become less significant in the societies of today. The introduction of firearms such as guns has made the traditional weapons and empty-handed martial arts lose much of their power, as even a completely untrained person can kill a master of any style by firing a gun from a safe distance. Before guns existed, however, knowledge of martial arts could save both your and your family's life. Because of this, the applications of the techniques were often considered sacred, and were commonly kept secret from all but family and the closest friends. Today, the views on this tradition of keeping things secret are very mixed, and some schools openly teach applications to anyone willing to learn. Others still require the students to show that they are worthy before teaching applications, "worthy" usually meaning that the students can be trusted that they will not use their knowledge to a bad purpose.

There are also modern styles that practice application and even focus solely on them, though these are aimed mostly at competition. One such style that has grown quite popular is called Sanda (or Sanshou). It is similar to Muay Thai and is a type of sparring competition where the competitors wear protection and gloves, and get points when scoring a hit on the opponent or performing a successful throw.

Weapons training

Most Chinese styles also make use of training the broad arsenal of Chinese weapons for conditioning the body as well as coordination and strategy drills.

Use of qi in Chinese martial arts

The concept of qì or ch'i (氣), the inner energy or "life force" that is said to animate living beings, is encountered in almost all styles of Chinese martial arts. Internal styles are reputed to cultivate its use differently than external styles.

Many believe that one's qi energy can be improved and strengthened through the regular practice of various physical and mental exercises known as qigong. Though qigong is not a martial art itself, it is often incorporated in Chinese martial arts, and practiced as a complement to strengthen one's internal abilities.

There are many ideas regarding controlling one's qi energy to such an extent that it can be used for healing oneself or others: the goal of medical qigong. Some styles believe in focusing qi into a single point when attacking and aim at specific areas of the human body (similar to the study of acupressure), to cause maximum damage or disable certain functions of the body. Some go so far as to think that at an advanced level it is (or was, as some believe such abilities to now be lost, if they ever existed) possible to cause harm without even touching the opponent, a popular concept in Chinese martial arts movies.