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Bed bug

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Bedbug
Cimex lectularius
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Animalia
Phylum:
Arthropoda
Class:
Insecta
Order:
Hemiptera
Suborder:
Heteroptera
Infraorder:
Cimicomorpha
Superfamily:
Cimicoidea
Family:
Cimicidae

Latreille, 1802
Subfamilies, Genera & Species

Subfamily Afrociminae

Subfamily Cimicinae

Subfamily Cacodminae

Subfamily Haematosiphoninae

Subfamily Latrocimicinae

Subfamily Primicimicinae

The bedbug (or bed bug) is an insect of the family Cimicidae that lives by hematophagy - feeding on the blood of humans and other warm-blooded hosts. Its name comes from its preferred habitat: mattresses, sofas, and other furniture.[1] Although not strictly nocturnal, bedbugs are mainly active at night.

Name and taxonomy

The common bedbug (Cimex lectularius Linnaeus 1758) is also known by a variety of common names, including wall louse, mahogany flat, crimson rambler, heavy dragoon, redcoat, and simply "bug". Its names in other languages include meanings such as "stinker" (French punaise), "nightcrawler" (German Nachtkrabbler), "bitter" (Sanskrit uddamsa), "pursuer" (Portuguese percevejo or perceveja, depending on the region), "flat" (Czech plostice), and "wall louse" (German Wandlaus).

There are 6 recognized subfamilies of Cimicidae and up to 23 genera, while the number of species has been stated as anywhere from 75 to 108. Most species only feed on humans when other prey are unavailable. [2][3][4]

C. lectularius and C. hempiterus will mate with each other given the opportunity, but the eggs then produced are usually sterile. In a 1988 study, 1 egg out of 479 was fertile and resulted in a hybrid, C. hemipterus x lectularius.[5][6]

Biology

The common bedbug (Cimex lectularius) is the species best adapted to human environments. It is found in temperate climates throughout the world and feeds on blood. Other species include Cimex hemipterus, found in tropical regions, which also infests poultry and bats, and Leptocimex boueti, found in the tropics of West Africa and South America, which infests bats and humans. Cimex pilosellus and Cimex pipistrella primarily infest bats, while Haematosiphon inodora, a species of North America, primarily infests poultry.[7]

Adult bedbugs are reddish-brown, flattened, oval, and wingless, with microscopic hairs that give them a banded appearance. A common misconception is that they are not visible to the naked eye. Adults grow to 4–5 mm (1/8th – 3/16th of an inch) in length and do not move quickly enough to escape the notice of an attentive observer. In size, they are often compared to lentils or apple seeds. Newly hatched nymphs are translucent, lighter in color and become browner as they moult and reach maturity.

Bedbug 4 mm length 2.5 mm width (Shown in a film roll plastic container. On the right is the sloughed off skin, which this bedbug just recently wore during its nymph form)

Feeding habits

Bedbugs are normally active just before dawn, with a peak feeding period about an hour before sunrise. However, they may attempt to feed at other times, given the opportunity, and have been observed to feed at any time of the day. They reach their host by crawling, or sometimes climb the walls to the ceiling and drop down on feeling a heat wave. Attracted by warmth and the presence of carbon dioxide, the bug pierces the skin of its host with two hollow tubes. With one tube it injects its saliva, which contains anticoagulants and anesthetics, while with the other it withdraws the blood of its host. After feeding for about five minutes, the bug returns to its hiding place. The bites cannot usually be felt until some minutes or hours later, as a dermatological reaction to the injected agents, and the first indication of a bite usually comes from the desire to scratch the bite site. Because of their natural aversion for sunlight, bedbugs come out at night.[8]

Although bedbugs can live for a year or eighteen months without feeding[citation needed], they normally try to feed every five to ten days. Bedbugs that go dormant for lack of food often live longer than a year, while well-fed specimens typically live six to nine months. Low infestations may be difficult to detect, and it is not unusual for the victim not to even realize they have bedbugs early on. Patterns of bites in a row or a cluster are typical as they may be disturbed while feeding. Bites may be found in a variety of places on the body.

Reproduction

A bedbug (Cimex lectularius) traumatically inseminates another.

All bedbugs mate via a process termed traumatic insemination.[9][10][11] Instead of inserting their genitalia into the female's reproductive tract as is typical in copulation, males instead pierce females with hypodermic genitalia and ejaculate into the body cavity.

Immature stages

Female bedbugs can lay up to five eggs in a day and 500 during a lifetime.[citation needed] The eggs are visible to the naked eye measuring 1 mm in length (approx. two grains of salt) and are a milky-white tone. The eggs hatch in one to two weeks. The newly emerged nymphs begin feeding immediately. They pass through five molting stages before they reach maturity. They must feed once during each of these stages.

At room temperature, it takes only about five weeks for a bedbug to pass from newly emerged nymph to adult. They become reproductively active only as adults.

Bites

It should be noted that not all persons will react to bedbug bites and that the presence of itchy welts can not be used as the only indicator of a home infestation. It is possible for an initial infestation within a household to rapidly build asymptomatically and go undetected because of this. And, as a result, the notion of 'not seeing any bites' or the common belief of 'having never been bitten' is not a reliable measure in confirming whether or not bedbugs have actually been introduced to a dwelling.

When a reaction does develop, most observed bites consist of a raised red bump or flat welt, and are often accompanied by very intense itching. The red bump or welts are the result of an allergic reaction to the anesthetic contained in the bedbug's saliva, which is inserted into the blood of its victim. Bedbug bites may appear indistinguishable from mosquito bites, though they tend to last for longer periods. Bites may not become immediately visible, and can take up to nine days to appear. Bedbug bites tend to not have a red dot in the center such as is characteristic of flea bites. A trait shared with flea bites, however, is tendency towards arrangements of sequential bites. Bites are often aligned three in a row, giving rise to the colloquialism "fleas bite in threes." This may be caused by the bedbug being disturbed while eating, and relocating half an inch or so farther along the skin before resuming feeding. Alternatively, the arrangement of bites may be caused by the bedbug repeatedly searching for a blood vein. People react very differently to bedbugs, and individual responses vary with factors including skin type, environment, and the species of bug. In some rare cases, allergic reactions to the bites may cause nausea and illness. In a large number of cases, estimated to 50% of all people, there is no visible sign of bites whatsoever, greatly increasing the difficulty of identifying and eradicating infestations.

People commonly respond to bed bug infestations and their bites with anxiety, stress, and insomnia.[12] Individuals may also get skin infections and scars from scratching the bedbug bite locations.

Most patients who are placed on systemic corticosteroids to treat the itching and burning often associated with bed bug bites find that the lesions are poorly responsive to this method of treatment. Antihistamines have been found to reduce itching in some cases, but they do not affect the appearance and duration of the lesions. Topical corticosteroids, such as hydrocortisone, have been reported to expediently resolve the lesions and decrease the associated itching.[13]

Many patients also experience temporary relief of itching and inflammation with the application of hot water to the bite.[14] The water should be quite hot (about 50 °C / 120 °F) because if it is not hot enough it may cause aggravation of the symptoms. The water should be hot enough to cause minor discomfort, but care must be taken not to burn the skin and this treatment should only be self-administered in order to reduce the risk of a burn. Itching and inflammation can be relieved for several hours by applying hot running water, a hot washcloth, or even using a blowdryer to heat the area of the bite, for 10 seconds to 1 minute (or longer if desired). There is disagreement as to why heat causes the symptoms to abate. Some hypotheses propose that heat overwhelms the nerve endings that signal itch, that heat neutralizes the chemical that causes the inflammation, or that heat triggers a large release of histamine causing a temporary histamine deficit in the area.

Disease transmission

Bedbugs seem to possess all of the necessary prerequisites for being capable of passing diseases from one host to another, but there have been no known cases of bed bugs passing disease from host to host. There are at least twenty-seven known pathogens (some estimates are as high as forty-one) that are capable of living inside a bed bug or on its mouthparts. Extensive testing has been done in laboratory settings that also conclude that bed bugs are unlikely to pass disease from one person to another.[15] Therefore bedbugs are less dangerous than some more common insects such as the flea. However, transmission of Chagas disease or hepatitis B might be possible in appropriate settings.[16]

Other effects on health

The salivary fluid injected by bed bugs typically causes the skin to become irritated and inflamed, although individuals can differ in their sensitivity. Anaphylactoid reactions produced by the injection of serum and other nonspecific proteins are observed and there is the possibility that the saliva of the bedbugs may cause anaphylactic shock in a small percentage of people. It is also possible that sustained feeding by bedbugs may lead to anemia. It is also important to watch for and treat any secondary bacterial infection.[citation needed] Systemic poisoning may occur if the bites are numerous.[17]

History

An 1860 engraving of parts of a bedbug. A. Intestines.—B. Antenna of the Male.—C Eye.—D. Haustellum, or Sucker, closed.—E. Side view of Sucker.—F. Under Part of Head.—G. Under Lip.—GG. Hair of the Tube, and outside Cases.—H. Egg-Bag.—I. Worm emerging from the Egg.

Middle East

C. lectulrius may have originated in the Middle East, in caves inhabited by bats and humans.[18]

Europe

Bedbugs were mentioned in ancient Greece as early as 400 BCE (later mentioned by Aristotle). Pliny's Natural History, first published c. 77 CE in Rome, claimed that bedbugs had medicinal value in treating ailments such as snake bites and ear infections. (Belief in the medicinal use of bedbugs persisted until at least the 18th century, when Guettard recommended their use in the treatment of hysteria.[19]) Bedbugs were first mentioned in Germany in the 11th century, in France in the 13th century, and in England in 1583[20], though they remained rare in England until 1670. It was believed by some in the 18th century that bedbugs had been brought to London with supplies of wood to rebuild the city after the Great Fire of London (1666). Scopoli noted their presence in Carniola (present day Slovenia and Italy) in the 18th century.[21][22]

Eighteenth and 19th century Europeans believed bedbugs to feed on the sap of certain trees (especially fir), paste (which may have included tree sap), other insects, and Acari.[23][24]

Americas

Bedbugs were known at least as early as 1726 in Jamaica.[25]

Bedbugs were originally brought to the United States by early colonists from Europe. Bedbugs thrive in places with high occupancy, such as hotels. Bedbugs were believed to be altogether eradicated 50 years ago in the United States and elsewhere with the widespread use of DDT. One recent theory about bedbug reappearance involves potential geographic epicentres. Investigators have found three apparent United States epicentres at poultry facilities in Arkansas, Texas and Delaware. It was determined that workers in these facilities were the main spreaders of these bedbugs, unknowingly carrying them to their places of residence and elsewhere after leaving work.[26] Bedbug populations in the United States have increased by 500 percent in the past few years. The cause of this resurgence is still uncertain, but most believe it is related to increased international travel and the use of new pest-control methods that do not affect bedbugs.[27] In the last few years, the use of baits rather than insecticide sprays is believed to have contributed to the increase.[citation needed] With the advent of cockroach bait in the early 1990s, the use of residual insecticides and other liquid sprays were drastically reduced. As it turned out, pest control professionals had not realized that during their monthly treatments for cockroaches (particularly the German cockroach[citation needed], which infests hotels as bedbugs do) they had helped in the control of bedbugs. This process may have started with the use of DDT but it is no coincidence that the dramatic rise in bedbug activity came approximately 10 or so years after professionals stopped spraying for cockroach activity.

New York City

New York City has had increased cases of bedbug infestations since the early 2000s. Bedbugs have been reported in some hotels, schools, and hospitals. In 2004, New York City had 377 bedbug violations. However, in the five-month span from July to November 2005, 449 violations were reported in the city, an increase in infestations over a short period of time. Some domestic cases have escalated to extreme levels causing residents to label the infestations "house herpes." Exterminators and entomologists blame the infestations on the fact that so many international travelers visit New York City each day.

Global resurgence

Bedbug cases have been on the rise recently across the world. Prior to the mid-twentieth century, bedbugs were very common. According to a report by the UK Ministry of Health, in 1933 there were many areas where all the houses had some degree of bedbug infestation.[28] Since the mid-1990s, reports of bedbug cases have been rising. Figures from one London borough show reported bedbug infestations doubling each year from 1995 to 2001. The rise in bedbug infestations has been hard to track because bedbugs are not an easily identifiable problem. Most of the reports are collected from pest-control companies, local authorities, and hotel chains.[28] Therefore, the problem may be more severe than is currently believed.[13]

As stated above, the most-cited reason for the dramatic worldwide rise in bedbug cases in recent decades is increased international travel.[29] In 1999, four separate infestations throughout the United Kingdom alerted people to the possibility of an increase in the worldwide bedbug population, facilitated by international travel and trade. However, there is evidence of a previous cycle of bedbug infestations in the United Kingdom. The Institution of Environmental Health Officers maintained statistics for bedbug infestations—data collected from reports and inspections. In the period 1985–1986, the Institution of Environmental Health Officers reported treating 7,771 infestations in England and Wales, and 6,179 infestations in 1986–1987. There were also reports of infestations in Belfast and in Scotland.[30]

An engorged female bedbug (Cimex lectularius) with eggs, discovered in a wooden bed.

Since 1999, infestations have been reported in the United Kingdom, Germany, Spain, Australia, Canada, India, Israel[31] and the United States. Two separate studies in Tuscany, Italy offer further correlation of international travel with a resurgence in bedbug infestations. In case 1, in summer 2003 a seven-year-old boy developed a number of papulae that caused severe itching on his lower legs. His parents suspected insects in the boy’s room, and found several in the folds of his mattress. Two specimens were identified as C. lectularius and the room was treated with an insecticide. The house had never been infested with bedbugs before. However, one month earlier, two family friends had flown from Nepal to stay with the family for ten days. In Case 2, a forty-eight-year-old man traveled by car to Pisa, Italy from Prague, Czech Republic in June 2003 and stayed in a rented house with three friends. After several days, the man noticed several bullous eruptions in linear patterns of three on his upper and lower extremities. The man found several insects in his room that were identified as C. lectularius. The rented house was well kept and had never had a bedbug infestation. However, a group of Germans had rented the house a few weeks before the Czech group arrived.[29]

Bedbugs had nearly been eradicated by the widespread use of potent insecticides such as DDT.[citation needed] However, many of these strong insecticides have been banned from the United States and replaced with weaker insecticides such as pyrethroids. Many bedbugs have grown resistant to the weaker insecticides.[citation needed] In a study at the University of Kentucky bedbugs were randomly collected from across the United States. These “wild” bedbugs were up to several thousands of times more resistant to pyrethroids than were laboratory bedbugs.[32] New York City bed bugs have been found to be 264 times more resistant to deltamethrin than Florida bedbugs due to nerve cell mutations.[33] Another problem with current insecticide use is that the broad-spectrum insecticide sprays for cockroaches and ants that are no longer used had a collateral impact on bedbug infestations. Recently, a switch has been made to bait insecticides that have proven effective against cockroaches but have allowed bedbugs to escape the indirect treatment.[28]

The number of bedbug infestations has risen significantly since the early 21st century. The National Pest Management Association reported a 71% increase in bedbug calls between 2000 and 2005.[32] The Steritech Group, a pest-management company based in Charlotte, North Carolina, claimed that 25% of the 700 hotels they surveyed between 2002 and 2006 needed bedbug treatment. In 2003, a brother and sister staying at a Motel 6 in Chicago were awarded $372,000 in punitive damages after being bitten by bedbugs during their stay. These are only a few of the reported cases since the turn of the 21st century.[34]

The resurgence of infestations led the United States Environmental Protection Agency to hold a National Bed Bug Summit April 14-15, 2009.[35]

Infestations

File:DSCF0005.JPG
Bedbug (shown on writing paper)

There are several means by which dwellings can become infested with bedbugs. People can often acquire bedbugs at hotels, motels, or bed-and-breakfasts, and bring them back to their homes in their luggage. They also can pick them up by inadvertently bringing infested furniture or used clothing to their household. If someone is in a place that is severely infested, bedbugs may actually crawl onto and be carried by people's clothing, although this is atypical behaviour — except in the case of severe infestations, bedbugs are not usually carried from place to place by people on clothing they are currently wearing. Bedbugs may travel between units in multi-unit dwellings, such as condominiums, dormitories and apartment buildings, after being originally brought into the building by one of the above routes. Bedbugs can also be transmitted via animal vectors including wild birds and household pets.[36]

This spread between sites is dependent in part on the degree of infestation, on the material used to partition units and whether infested items are dragged through common areas while being disposed of, resulting in the shedding of bedbugs and bedbug eggs while being dragged. In some exceptional cases, the detection of bedbug hiding places can be aided by the use of dogs that have been trained to find the insects by their scent much as dogs are trained to find drugs or explosives. A trained dog and handler can detect and pinpoint a bedbug infestation within minutes. This is a fairly costly service that is not used in the majority of cases, but can be very useful in difficult cases.

The numerical size of a bedbug infestation is to some degree variable, as it is a function of the elapsed time from the initial infestation. With regards to the elapsed time from the initial infestation, even a single female bedbug brought into a home has a potential for reproduction, with its resulting offspring then breeding, resulting in a geometric progression of population expansion if control is not undertaken. Sometimes people are not aware of the insects and do not notice the bites. The visible bedbug infestation does not represent the infestation as a whole, as there may be infestations elsewhere in a home. However, the insects do have a tendency to stay close to their hosts, hence the name "bed" bugs.

Locations

Blood-fed Cimex lectularius

Bedbugs travel easily and quickly along pipes and boards, and their bodies are very flat, which allows them to hide in tiny crevices. In the daytime, they tend to stay out of the light, preferring to remain hidden in such places as mattress seams, mattress interiors, bed frames, nearby furniture, carpeting, baseboards, inner walls, tiny wood holes, or bedroom clutter. Bedbugs can be found on their own, but more often congregate in groups. Bedbugs are capable of traveling as far as 100 feet (30 m) to feed, but usually remain close to the host in bedrooms or on sofas where people may sleep.

Detection

Slide of Cimex lectularius

Confirming the presence of bedbugs can be a tricky matter -- particularly in cases where an infestation is light, recurrent, or when a user has no prior experience in dealing with bedbugs. Because of this, it is advisable that a person become aware of the telltale signs of a budding infestation and, if noted, seek to have it treated immediately (either through self-treatment, in taking measures to isolate the problem, or through the hiring of a professional) before the infestation has a chance to grow and spread into something that will be more difficult to contain later on. In light infestations, bedbugs will often lodge themselves unnoticed into the tiniest of crevices away from viewing and usually coming out to feed only deep in the middle of the night. But this rule is not set in stone as there will be exceptions -- particularly in heavy infestations where it will then become common to see bedbugs crawling about in broad daylight.

Early infestations can be difficult to detect and the symptoms of bedbugs might often be detected before the bugs themselves.

The presence of defecations can be one sign that bedbugs have taken a foothold in a given location. As bedbug droppings are solidly black or nearly black in color and will often appear as dots or specks that are similar in appearance to a drop of ink that has dried (black in color). The defecation itself is digested blood. These small pitch-black droppings will vary in size (ranging from tiny and difficult to see up to the size of the bugs themselves) but can be distinguished from other dark debris in that bedbug droppings will readily smear (or bleed in color) if rubbed with a wetted finger or if contacted with water. The droppings may also be discovered appearing as black ink-like markings that already seem to have faded or that already seem to have been partially absorbed into the material they've been deposited on. They may also be found, not as circular dots, but as dark pinstripe-like marks that are small and streaked in appearance. These black defecations can be spotted anywhere bedbugs may be harbored but might also be found at the location of the host site or along route back to a nesting location --- i.e. which might be on the pillowcase or in between, on the mattress, sheets, bed frame, curtains, in baseboards, in crevices, in seams, under the couch, under chairs, etc. Detecting them might require a considerable degree of extra vigilance in light cases of infestation. Detection can also be aided (as recommended) through outfitting the bed with white sheets (both fitted and flat) and through the use of pillowcases that are white in color -- which will make it much easier to spot bedbugs and/or the occurrence of their defecations on the bed.

Bedbugs are also known for being elusive, transient, and often nocturnal, making individual bugs difficult to detect in light cases. While individuals have the option of contacting a pest control professional to help determine if a bedbug infestation exists, there are several do-it-yourself methods that may work equally well. Often the case is that bedbugs will manage to hide in the cracks of a bed (within the frame), in the mattresses, in furniture, up under couches, in the seams of chairs, in the creases of upholstery, etc. or in areas that an inexperienced person is least likely to check -- hence the bedbug's survival. They may also be detected harboring themselves within the pockets and insides of clothes that are not regularly washed (i.e. jackets, coats, etc.). For reasons such as this, it may be a good idea to have the assistance of an experienced person with respect to detecting an infestation.

Finding the exoskeletal remains from the bedbug's molting process (ecdysis) is another indicator that they are present but, perhaps, well hidden. Bedbugs will shed their skins throughout multiple stages of their lives and the discarded outer-shells (which will vary in size according to the stage and can be extremely small) might be found near any of the various locations where they have harbored. The sloughed off skins (pictured above) will appear as clear, empty exoskeletons of the bugs themselves. And the actual living bugs may or may not be nearby the discarded shells.

The presence of bedbugs may also be confirmed through direct discovery and identification of the insects collected or by a pattern of bites. Though bites can occur singularly, they often follow a distinctive linear pattern marking the paths of blood vessels running close to the surface of the skin. It should also be noted that confirmed bedbugs may vary slightly in appearance, color or shape depending on the insect's current size, stage in life, and whether they have recently fed.

Detection of bedbugs will be required during infestation as well as after initial treatment efforts. The difficulties associated with treating bedbugs and the possibility of reinfestation means that detection has to be an ongoing process. It is recommended to search throughout all cracks and crevices (on beds, couches, chairs, furniture, etc. checking underneath as well) using a flashlight to search for signs of bedbugs or for the bugs themselves. And, when searching a dark room at night, bedbugs may be spotted crawling about looking for a blood meal but will usually remain completely stationary congregating in ideal hiding spots nearest to the host. If awakened during the middle of the night, it is also optional do a quick search for bedbugs using red LED night vision lights as opposed to regular white flashlights -- with red LEDs being less bothersome to night eyes. Red LED lights are normally used by campers or hikers to read maps in the middle of the night without agitating their eyes or harming their night vision but are applicable to the searching for bedbugs in the dark as they can help prevent from waking light sleepers and will also allow an awakened person to return to sleep easier. Red LED night vision lights are available as stand-alone flashlights, as headlamps, as clip-ons, etc. -- or as an additional 'night' feature to these same types of camping flashlights.

Control and elimination

Pesticides

With the widespread use of DDT in the 1940s and '50s, bedbugs mostly disappeared from North America in the mid-twentieth century.[37] Infestations remained common in many other parts of the world and in recent years have also begun to rebound in North America. Reappearance of bedbugs has presented new challenges for pest control due to their developed resistance to various pesticides including DDT, and organophosphates.[38][39].

In fact, the use of DDT on today's bedbug make them more active [2]

Another reason for their increase is that more pest control services use gel-based pesticide baits for control of cockroaches and ants, the most common pests in structures, instead of residual sprays. When residual sprays were used to kill the more common insect pests, they resulted in the collateral control of bedbug populations. The gel-based insecticides primarily used today to control cockroach and ant populations do not have any effect on bedbugs, as bed bugs are not attracted to baits.

Yet another perceived cause of the bedbug resurgence is the growing push to recycle mattresses. Not only are mattresses to be recycled collected and stored with those already processed[3], but it is very difficult to ensure that no bedbugs or eggs survive the processing[4].

The National Pest Management Association, a US advocacy group for pest management professionals conducted a "proactive bedbug public relations campaign" in 2005 and 2006, resulting in increased media coverage of bedbug stories and an increase in business for pest controllers, possibly distorting the scale of the increase in bedbug infestations.[40]

Extreme temperatures

The use of a fabric steamer on the infestations will kill the eggs and the bugs instantly.[citation needed] The bed bugs cannot handle the intense heat and are killed in a couple of seconds. Since steam will penetrate the pores of a mattress, it can reach deep into the corners of beds.[citation needed]

The thermal death point for the common bedbug (C. lectularius) is 45°C (113°F), and all stages of life are killed by 7 minutes of exposure to 46°C (115°F).[41] However, to ensure that bedbugs do not survive by hiding in locations that do not quite reach the thermal death point, the US Department of Defense recommends using a temperature of at least 49°C (120°F), at 20-30% relative humidity, for at least 20 minutes.[42] Enclosing a mattress in a black plastic bag and placing it in the sun on a hot day is not considered an effective method of killing bedbugs, due to the difficulty of maintaining a high temperature across the entire surface area of the mattress.[43]

There is uncertainty as to how long bedbugs can survive cold temperatures. Below 16.1°C (61°F), adults enter semi-hibernation and can survive longer.[44] Bedbugs can survive for at least five days at -10°C (14°F) but will die after 15 minutes of exposure to -32°C (-25.6°F)[45] It is believed that storing infested items below -19°C (0°F) for at least four days will be successful. Carbon dioxide deployed in the form of "snow" may kill bedbugs by rapid freezing.[42]

Controlled atmospheres

Experiments with high concentrations of carbon dioxide have succeeded in killing bedbugs within 24 hours.[42]

Biological control (predatory species)

Natural enemies of bedbugs include cockroaches,[46] ants, spiders, mites, centipedes, and the masked hunter or "masked bedbug hunter" (Reduvius personatus). The Pharaoh ant's (Monomorium pharaonis) venom is lethal to bedbugs. Rodents eat bedbugs, but bats do not, due to their distaste for the bedbug alarm pheromone, which is released when they are attacked. Unfortunately, biological control is not very practical for eliminating bedbugs from human dwellings.[45]

Food source isolation

Due to the difficulty in eliminating the bugs from the room or dwelling, the (suspected) bed is isolated, thus removing the insects' food source - humans. Bedbugs cannot cross petroleum jelly and have difficulty climbing metal or glass, hence each of the bed legs is put in a tin can (the bottom of which is thickly coated with petroleum jelly) to avoid movement from the bed to the hiding places. Although bedbugs cannot fly or jump, they have been observed climbing a higher surface in order to then fall to a lower one, such as climbing a wall in order to fall onto a bed. Hence alternatively, a double-sided sticky tape (such as carpet tape) is applied around each bed leg, or to keep each leg on a plastic furniture block in a tray of water.

Domestic treatment

Use of steam or by spraying rubbing alcohol on any visible insects is done to effectively rid bed frames of adult bedbugs and eggs, although it does not serve as a permanent treatment. Small steam cleaners have been very effective for local treatment.

A suspect mattress is sometimes protected by wrapping it in a disposable plastic sheeting, sealing, shutting all the seams and putting it on a protected bed after a final visual inspection.

Sanitization: In this method, bedding is sanitized by a 120 °F (49 °C) laundry dryer. Once sanitized, bedding is not allowed to drape to the floor. Storing sanitized sleeping clothes in the bed during the day and bathing before entering the bed are observed to be effective to quarantining a protected bed.

Encasing mattress and box springs in impermeable bed-bug-bite-proof encasements after a treatment for an infestation is an alternative treatment which works better and is more comfortable whereas wrapping bedding in plastic causes sweating.

Problems in elimination and remedies

Bedbugs prefer human hosts, but resort to other warm-blooded hosts like vermin and pets if humans are not available, thus complicating the barrier strategy. Some bedbug species can live up to eighteen months without feeding at all. A co-infestation of mice can provide an auxiliary food source to keep bedbugs established for longer. Likewise, a house cat or human guest might easily defeat a barrier by sitting on a protected bed. Such considerations are an essential part of any barrier strategy.

Traditional methods

Plants traditionally used as bedbug repellents include black cohosh (Actaea racemosa), Pseudarthna hookeri, and Laggera alata (Chinese yángmáo cǎo | 羊毛草), though information about their effectiveness is lacking.[45] Eucalyptus saligna oil kills bedbugs, and eucalyptus-based insect repellents may be effective against them.[47]

In the 18th century, turpentine was used in combination with henna (Lawsonia inermis, aka camphire) flowers and alcohol, as an insecticide that also reputedly killed bedbug eggs.[48]

Other items that were believed to kill bedbugs in the early 19th century include "infused oil of Melolontha vulgaris" (presumably a kind of cockchafer), fly agaric (Amanita muscaria), Actaea spp. (e.g. black cohosh), tobacco, "heated oil of Terebinthina" (i.e. turpentine), wild mint (Mentha arvensis), narrow-leaved pepperwort (Lepidium ruderale), Myrica spp. (e.g. bayberry), Robert Geranium (Geranium robertianum), bugbane (Cimicifuga spp.), "herb and seeds of Cannabis", "Opulus" berries (possibly a kind of maple, or European cranberrybush), masked hunter bugs (Reduvius personatus), "and many others."[49]

The use of black pepper is attested in George Orwell's 1933 non-fiction book Down and Out in Paris and London.

Recent methods

A recent trend in bedbug control is to use canine detection teams to pinpoint infestation areas because hiding places are very hard to find. Bedbug dogs are trained to find the bed bugs in what is known as a sweep. The dog sweeps through suspected infestation areas and alerts to the scent of bedbugs. A bedbug dog can detect bedbugs in a bedroom within minutes, with an accuracy rate of 90%, whereas a (human) pest control practitioner would need an hour to complete the task.[45]

There are more frequent reports of success in controlling bedbugs by the use of diatomaceous earth as an environment friendly barrier to which the bedbugs cannot develop a resistance. The diatomaceous earth abrades the waxy cuticle that covers an insect's exosekeleton, causing them to die of dehydration[citation needed]. Bedbugs exposed to diatomaceous earth typically die within two days of contact.

Measures while traveling

Since most bedbugs are carried by travelers through contact with beds and hotel rooms in infected locations, certain measures taken while traveling help in control of bedbugs:[5]

  1. Examining the room for potential hiding places of bedbugs, such as carpet edges, mattress seams, pillow case linings, bedboards, wall trim or other tiny crevices in which bedbugs could hide.
  2. Looking specifically at the mattress seams for signs of bedbug activity: droppings, eggs, bloodstains or even bedbugs themselves, hiding in tiny folds and seam lines.
  3. Keeping a flashlight nearby while sleeping to immediately observe suspected activity during the night without having to get up out of bed which would otherwise give them time to hide in safety.
  4. Not leaving clothing lying on the bed, or any location of possible infestation (as mentioned above) and instead, using hangers or hooks capable of keeping all cloth distant from the floor or bed. Suspend new shopping in bags the same way.
  5. Closing all luggage (suitcase, travel bag etc.) when not in use. This way, during the night the bugs may move over the top of the bags and have difficulty getting inside.
  6. Elevating luggage off the floor to luggage stand, tables or chairs, although these can also be hiding places.

Household actions

The cleanliness of the environment has an effect on the control of bedbugs but, unlike cockroaches, it does not have a direct effect as they feed on their hosts and not on waste. Good housekeeping in association with proper preparation and mechanical removal assist in its control.

Catching techniques and traps

A technique for catching bedbugs in the act is to have a light source quickly accessible from your bed and to turn it on at about an hour before dawn, which is usually the time when bedbugs are most active. A flashlight/torch is recommended instead of room lights, as the act of getting out of bed will cause any bedbugs present to scatter before you can catch them. If you awaken during the night, leave your lights off but use your flashlight/torch to inspect your mattress. Bedbugs are fairly fast in their movements, about equal to the speed of ants. They may be slowed down if they have engorged on their food source. When the bedroom light is switched on, it may temporarily startle them allowing time for you to get a dust pan and brush kept next to the bed and sweep the bugs into the pan then immediately sweep them into a cup or mug full of water where the bugs drown quickly. Dispose of the water down the sink or toilet. Disinfect the mattress, skirting boards and so on regularly.

Glue traps placed in strategic areas around the home, sometimes used in conjunction with heating pads or balloons filled with exhaled breath offering a carbon dioxide source, may be used to trap and thus detect bedbugs. This method has varied reports of success. There are also commercial traps like 'flea' traps whose effectiveness is questionable except perhaps as a means of detection. Perhaps the easiest trapping method is to place double-sided carpet tape in long strips near or around the bed and check the strips after a day or more. However, bedbugs can simply walk across the sticky surface of tape, which, while slowing them down, will not stop them from crossing.

Current research

The Texas A&M Center for Urban and Structural Entomology and the University of Arkansas Department of Entomology have been collaborating to study bedbugs on a genetic level in the hopes to shed light on their recent resurgence. By studying the genetic variation within bedbug populations, researchers can gain insight into insecticide resistance and insect dispersal. Researchers have two theories as to how bedbug resurgence has occurred in the United States. One theory is that the source of current bedbug populations is from other countries without bedbug pesticides that have made their way through air travel, and another theory is that the surviving bed bug populations were forced to switch hosts to birds such as poultry, and bats.

The theory that the surviving bedbug populations were forced to switch hosts to birds is also supported by the research carried out at Texas A&M and the University of Arkansas. In a recent study, researchers subjected 136 adult bedbugs from 22 sampled populations from nine U.S. states, Australia, and Canada to genetic analysis. Their finding concluded that the bedbug populations were never completely eradicated from the United States as there was no evidence of a genetic bottleneck in either the mitochondrial or nuclear DNA of the bedbugs. Researchers suspect that resistant populations of bedbugs have slowly been propagating in poultry facilities, and have made their way back to human hosts via the poultry workers.[50][51]

Other research is being conducted at the University of Arkansas and Virginia Tech to be able to use bedbugs in forensic science. Researchers have been successful at isolating and characterizing human DNA taken from bedbug blood meals. One advantage that bedbugs have over other blood feeders being used in forensics is that they do not remain on the host, and instead remain in close proximity to the crime scene. Therefore bedbugs could potentially provide crucial evidence linking the suspect to the crime scene. Researchers are able to identify what hosts are being fed upon, and are taking further steps to be able to identify the individual by genotyping, and to predict the duration from the time of feeding to recovery of viable DNA.[52][53]

See also

References

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  2. ^ http://www.bioimages.org.uk/html/t159942.htm
  3. ^ Gary Richard Mullen and Lance A. Durden, Medical and veterinary entomology, 2002, p. 80
  4. ^ Australian Faunal Directory, http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/abrs/online-resources/fauna/afd/taxa/CIMICIDAE
  5. ^ Med Vet Entomol. 1988 Jul;2(3):297-300."Production of a hybrid between the bedbugs Cimex hemipterus and Cimex lectularius." http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2980186
  6. ^ "A field study of mating between two species of bedbug in northern KwaZulu, South Africa" http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/119457083/abstract?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0
  7. ^ Cranshaw. W.S. F.B. Peairs. "Bat Bugs and Bed Bugs." http://www.ext.colostate.edu/PUBS/INSECT/05574.html.2005.
  8. ^ http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/158065.php
  9. ^ Carayon, J. 1959 Insémination par “spermalège” et cordon conducteur de spermatozoids chez Stricticimex brevispinosus Usinger (Heteroptera, Cimicidae). Rev. Zool. Bot. Afr. 60, 81–104.
  10. ^ Carayon, J. 1966 Traumatic insemination and the paragenital system. In Monograph of the Cimicidae (Hemiptera – Heteroptera) (ed. R. L. Usinger), pp. 81–166. College Park, MD: Entomological Society of America.
  11. ^ Carayon, J. 1977 Insémination extragénitale traumatique. In Traité de Zoologie 8(V-A) (ed. P. P. Grassé), pp. 351–390. Paris: Masson.
  12. ^ Susan C. Jones, PhD http://ohioline.osu.edu/hyg-fact/2000/pdf/2105.pdf Extension Fact Sheet "Bed Bugs, Injury" January, 2004
  13. ^ a b Mark D. Scarupa and Athena Economides, MD Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology "Bedbug bites masquerading as urticaria" Vol. 117, Issue 6, June 2006, p.1508–1509
  14. ^ Sulzberger, M. B., et al. Dermatology: Diagnosis and Treatment. Chicago: Yearbook, 1961; p. 94
  15. ^ Sean Rollo http://thebedbugresource.com/bedbugfaq6.htm The Bed Bug Resource "Can bed bugs pass diseases?" 2007
  16. ^ Robert A Schwartz MD, MPH http://www.emedicine.com/derm/topic600.htm EMedicine "Bedbug bites" 28 March 2007
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  19. ^ William Smith and Charles Anthon, A dictionary of Greek and Roman antiquities, 1847, pp. 252-253 http://books.google.com/books?id=41oMAAAAYAAJ&dq=cimex&source=gbs_navlinks_s
  20. ^ Gary Richard Mullen and Lance A. Durden, Medical and veterinary entomology, 2002, p. 80
  21. ^ "That soon after the Fire of London, in some of the new-built Houses they were observ'd to appear, and were never noted to have been seen in the old, tho' they were then so few, as to be little taken notice of; yet as they were only seen in Firr-Timber, 'twas conjectured they were then first brought to England in them; of which most of the new Houses were partly built, instead of the good Oak destroy'd in the old." John Southall, A Treatise of Buggs [sic], pp. 16-17. http://www.archive.org/details/atreatisebuggss00soutgoog
  22. ^ "According to Scopoli's 2nd work (loc. cit.), found in Carniola and adjoining regions. According to Linnaeus' 2nd work on exotic insects (loc. cit.), before the era of health, already in Europe, seldom observed in England before 1670." Johann Friedrich Wolff and Johann Philip Wolff, Icones Cimicum descriptionibus illustratae, fourth fascicle (1804), p. 127. http://www.archive.org/details/iconescimicumdes00wolf
  23. ^ "Their beloved Foods are Blood, dry'd Paste, Size, Deal [fir], Beach [beech], Oiler, and fome other Woods, the Sap of which they lick; and on any one of these will they live the year round. Oak, Walnut, Cedar and Mahogoney they will not feed upon; all Pairs I put up with thofe Woods for Food, having been soon starved to death." John Southall, A Treatise of Buggs, pp. 23-24 http://www.archive.org/details/atreatisebuggss00soutgoog
  24. ^ "Many years ago I found numerous specimens in hidden places among wooden beams, where without a doubt Acari [mites and ticks] and a few other insects supplied them with nourishment." Johann Friedrich Wolff and Johann Philip Wolff, Icones Cimicum descriptionibus illustratae, fourth fascicle, 1804, p. 127 http://www.archive.org/details/iconescimicumdes00wolf
  25. ^ John Southall, A Treatise of Buggs [sic], pp. 16-17. http://www.archive.org/details/atreatisebuggss00soutgoog
  26. ^ Austin, James.http://urbanentomology.tamu.edu/bedbugs/bedbugs.cfm
  27. ^ James Owen http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/05/0513_040513_bedbugs.html National Geographic “Bloodthirsty Bedbugs Stage Comeback in U.S., Europe” 13 May 2004.
  28. ^ a b c Boase, Clive J, "Bed-bugs - reclaiming our cities" The Pest Management Consultancy, Haverhill, UK, Biologist April 2004, Vol. 51 issue 1, p9–12
  29. ^ a b Masetti, Massimo and Bruschi, Fab hell rizio "Bedbug Infestations recorded in Central Italy" Parasitology International Volume 56, Issue 1, March 2007, p81–83
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  31. ^ זהירות, הפשפשים חוזרים!, (hebrew) www.haaretz.co.il, retrieved 05.08.08
  32. ^ a b Voiland, Adam "You May not be Alone" U.S. News & World Report 7/16/2007, Vol. 143, Issue 2, p53–54.
  33. ^ Journal of Medical Entomology, 45 (6), 2008, pp. 1092–1101
  34. ^ Initi, John "Sleeping with the Enemy" Maclean's, 1/14/2008, Vol. 121, Issue 1, p54–56
  35. ^ "National Bed Bug Summit". United States Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved 2009-04-22.
  36. ^ Waldvogel, M., C Apperson. 2006 " Bed Bugs." http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/ent/notes/Urban/bedbugs.htm 21 November 2008
  37. ^ Bedbugs are back and so are their bites. - Nov. 29, 2005
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  39. ^ Steelman, C.D., A.L. Szalanski, R. Trout, J.A. McKern, C. Solorzano, and J.W. Austin. 2008. Susceptibility of the bed bug Cimex lectularius L. (Hemiptera: Cimicidae) to selected insecticides. Journal of Agricultural and Urban Entomology 25:(1) (in press)
  40. ^ Bayer
  41. ^ IPM Practitioner, XXIX(3/4) March/April 2007 http://www.birc.org/MarApril2007.pdf
  42. ^ a b c US Department of Defense Armed Forces Pest Management Board Technical Guide #44 http://www.afpmb.org/pubs/tims/TG44/TG44.htm
  43. ^ Journal of Economic Entomology 99(6):2132-2135. 2006: "Encasing Mattresses in Black Plastic Will Not Provide Thermal Control of Bed Bugs, Cimex spp. (Hemiptera: Cimicidae)" http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.1603/0022-0493%282006%2999%5B2132%3AEMIBPW%5D2.0.CO%3B2?journalCode=ecen
  44. ^ http://www.augustineexterminators.com/galleryDetail.asp?gallery_id=26
  45. ^ a b c d IPM Practitioner, XXIX(3/4), March/April 2007 http://www.birc.org/MarApril2007.pdf Cite error: The named reference "birc.org" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  46. ^ Encyclopedia Americana, 1996 ed., v. 3, p. 413
  47. ^ Schaefer, C.W. and A.R. Pazzini, eds. 2000. Heteroptera of Economic Importance. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
  48. ^ Rictor Norton, Early Eighteenth-Century Newspaper Reports: A Sourcebook, "Getting Rid of Bed-Bugs", 18 November 2001, updated 30 November 2001 <http://grubstreet.rictornorton.co.uk/bedbugs.htm>
  49. ^ Johann Friedrich Wolff and Johann Philip Wolff, Icones Cimicum descriptionibus illustratae, fourth fascicle (1804), p. 127. http://www.archive.org/stream/iconescimicumdes00wolf#page/n163/mode/2up
  50. ^ Szalanski, Allen L., James W. Austin, Jackie A. McKern, C. Dayton Steelman, and Roger E. Gold. 2008.Mitochondrial and Ribosomal Internal Transcribed Spacer 1 Diversity of Cimex lectularius (Hemiptera: Cimicidae). Journal of Medical Entomology 45(2): 229–236link
  51. ^ Austin, James.http://urbanentomology.tamu.edu/bedbugs/bedbugs.cfm. "Bed Bugs, Cimex lectularius."2007
  52. ^ Szalanski, Allen L., James W. Austin, Jackie A. McKern, C. Dayton Steelman, Dini M. Miller, and Roger E. Gold. 2007 Isolation and Characterization of Human DNA from Bed Bugs, Cimex lectularius L., (Hemiptera: Cimicidae) Blood Meals. Journal of Agric. Urban Entomology 23(3): 189–194link
  53. ^ Szalanski, A.L, J.W. Austin, J.A. McKern, T. McCoy, C.D. Steelman, and D.M. Miller. 2006. Time course analysis of bed bug, "Cimex lectularius" L., (Hemiptera: Cimicidae) blood meals using PCR. Journal of Agricultural and Urban Entomology 23: 237-241

Further reading

  • David Cain, Richard Strand. Bed Bug Beware: An easy to understand guide to bed bugs, their prevention and control. Loughborough, United Kingdom: Foxhill publishing, March 2009. ISBN 978-0-9562617-0-0
  • Larry Pinto, Richard Cooper, Sandy Kraft. Bed Bug Handbook: The Complete Guide to Bed Bugs and Their Control. Mechanicsville, Maryland: Pinto & Associates, December 2007. ISBN 978-0-9788878-1-0
  • Martin Leverkus, Ryan C. Jochim, Susanne Schad et al. Bullous allergic hypersensitivity to bed bug bites mediated by IgE against salivary nitrophorin. J. Invest. Dermatol. (2006) 126, 91–96.
  • Forsyth, Adrian. A Natural History of Sex: The Ecology and Evolution of Mating Behavior. Richmond Hil mr.l, Ontario: Firefly Books, 2001. ISBN 1-55209-481-2.
  • MacQuitty, Miranda, and Lawrence Mound. Megabugs: The Natural History Museum Book of Insects. New York: Random House Children's Books, 1995. ISBN 1-898304-37-8, ISBN 1-85868-045-X.
  • Goddard, Jerome A. The Physician’s Guide to Arthropods of Medical Importance (second edition). Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press, 1993. ISBN 0-8493-5160-X.
  • Forsyth, Adrian. Die Sexualität in der Natur. Vom Egoismus der Gene und ihren unfeinen Strategien. Munich: Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag, 1991. ISBN 3-423-11331-6.
  • Quammen, David. The Flight of the Iguana: A Sidelong View of Science and Nature. New York: Delacorte Press, 1988. ISBN 0-385-29592-8, ISBN 0-385-26327-9, ISBN 0-684-83626-2. Provides detail about Xylocaris maculipennis.
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article "Bug (insect)".


Information from specialized sources

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