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Chopsticks

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"Hashi" redirects here. For the logic puzzle, see Hashiwokakero.
For other uses, see Chopsticks (disambiguation).
Chopsticks
Chopsticks made of Japanese Yew wood,
resting on a chopstick rest
Chinese name
Chinese筷子
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu Pinyinkuàizi
Wu
Romanizationkhuae去 tsy上
Hakka
Romanizationkuai e
Yue: Cantonese
Jyutpingfaai3 zi2
Alternative Chinese name
Chinese箸；筯
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu Pinyinzhù
Wu
Romanizationzy去
Hakka
Romanizationchu33
Yue: Cantonese
Jyutpingzyu6 / zyu3
Southern Min
Hokkien POJtī / tū
Eastern Min
Fuzhou BUCdê̤ṳ
Vietnamese name
Vietnamese alphabetđũa
Chữ Nôm[𥮊 or 𥯖] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
Thai name
Thaiตะเกียบ
RTGStakiap
Korean name
Hangul젓가락
Transcriptions
Revised Romanizationjeotgarak/jeogarak
McCune–Reischauerchŏkkarak
Japanese name
Kanji箸
Transcriptions
Revised Hepburnhashi
Kunrei-shikihasi
Indonesian name
Indonesiansum pit
Filipino name
Filipinosipit
Burmese name
Burmeseတူ ([tù], from Hokkien 箸 tū)
Malay name
Malaysepit

Chopsticks are small, often tapered, sticks used in pairs of equal length as the traditional eating utensils of China and its diaspora, Japan, Korea, Vietnam and Northern provinces of Laos, Thailand and Burma. Generally believed to have originated in ancient China, they can also be found in some areas of Tibet and Nepal that are close to Han Chinese populations. Chopsticks are most commonly made of bamboo or plastic, but are also made of metal, bone, ivory, and various types of wood. The pair of sticks is maneuvered in one hand, between the thumb and fingers, and used to pick up pieces of food.

Etymology

The English word "chopstick" seems to have been derived from Chinese Pidgin English, a pidgin in which "chop chop" meant quickly.[1][2] According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the earliest published use of the word is in the 1699 book Voyages and descriptions by William Dampier, where it says "they are called by the English seamen Chopsticks".[3]

Chopsticks are used to eat many Japanese dishes, such as nattō

In the Chinese language, chopsticks are called kuaizi (Chinese: 筷子; pinyin: kuàizi). The first character (筷) is a semantic-phonetic compound with a phonetic part meaning "quick" (快), and a semantic part meaning "bamboo" (竹).[4]

In ancient written Chinese, the character for chopsticks was 箸 (Middle Chinese: d̪jwo-; pinyin: zhù; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: tī/tū). However, it is postulated by some that the pronunciation for this character became a taboo on ships because it sounded either the same or similar to the word meaning "to stop" (住) in many Chinese languages. As such, although 箸 may have been widely used in ancient spoken Chinese, its use was eventually replaced by the pronunciation for the character 快 (pinyin: kuài), meaning "quick". The original character, though still commonly used in writing, is rarely used in modern spoken Chinese languages, with the exception of modern Hokkien where the new character is not used for chopsticks. For written semantic differentiation between the "fast" versus "chopsticks" meanings of 快, a new character 筷 was created for chopsticks by adding the bamboo (竹) radical (⺮) to it.[5]

In Japanese, chopsticks are called hashi (はし), written 箸. They are also known as otemoto (おてもと) or o-temoto, a phrase commonly printed on the wrappers of disposable chopsticks. O is honorific and temoto was euphemistic jargon invented by the clique of the ladies in attendance at the imperial court meaning that which is within your reach. More fundamentally, te means hand and moto is related to the kyo of kyoka (permission).[6]

In Korean, 저 (箸, jeo) is used in the compound jeotgarak (젓가락) which is composed of jeo (chopsticks) and garak (stick). Jeo cannot be used alone.

In Vietnamese, chopsticks are called "đũa", which is written as 𥮊 with 竹 trúc (bamboo) as the semantic, and 杜 đỗ as the phonetic part in Chữ Nôm.

History

See also: List of Chinese inventions
Chopsticks, spoon, and bowl of the Song Dynasty.

Chopsticks originated in ancient China as early as the Shang dynasty (1766-1122 BCE).[7][8] The earliest evidence of a pair of chopsticks, which was made out of bronze, was excavated from the Ruins of Yin near Anyang, Henan, dated roughly 1200 BCE.[9][10] The earliest known extant textual reference to the use of chopsticks comes from the Han Feizi, a philosophical text written by Han Fei (c. 280-233 BCE) in the 3rd century BCE.[11]

While China, Japan, Korea and Vietnam had long included chopsticks as part of their traditional eating utensils, the use of chopsticks in a limited sense spread to other Asian countries in recent centuries with the influx of Chinese immigrants in Southeast Asia [citation needed].

A painting of a Japanese woman using chopsticks, by Utagawa Kuniyoshi

Many countries in Southeast Asia had traditionally eaten with their hands, but through the influence of Chinese immigrants, countries such as Thailand, and Indonesia began to use chopsticks, albeit almost exclusively in noodle dishes [citation needed]. Rice and other foods are generally eaten with a spoon and fork rather than chopsticks.

Use

Many rules of etiquette govern the proper conduct of the use of chopsticks. Held between the thumb and fingers of one hand, chopsticks are used like tongs to pick up portions of food which are prepared and brought to the table in small and convenient pieces. They are thought of as an extension of one's fingers. Chopsticks may also be used (except in Korea) as means for sweeping rice and other nominal morsels into the mouth directly from the bowl.

Chopsticks are traditionally held in the right hand, even by some left-handed people. Although chopsticks may now be found in either hand, a few still consider left-handed chopstick use improper etiquette. This practice prevents a left-handed chopstick user from accidentally elbowing a right-handed user when seated closely together. A pair of chopsticks is held in a certain proper way. The lower chopstick is stationary and placed between the base of the thumb and top of the ring finger, whilst the upper chopstick is placed at the top of the index finger, ring finger, and thumb and moved to pick up food.[12]

In chopstick-using cultures, food is generally made into small pieces; however, some chopstick designs have carved rings encircling the tips to aid in grasping larger pieces of food. Rice, which would be difficult to eat with chopsticks if prepared using Western methods, is usually prepared in East Asia with more water, which leads to "clumping" of the rice conducive to eating with chopsticks. The sticky characteristics of the rice also depend on the cultivar of rice; the cultivar used in East Asian countries is usually japonica, which is a more naturally clumping kind of rice than indica, the rice used in most Western and South Asian countries.

Types

Long chopsticks used for cooking.
Wooden and plastic chopsticks

There are several styles of chopsticks that vary in respect to:

  • Length: Very long chopsticks, usually about 30 or 40 centimeters, tend to be used for cooking, especially for deep frying foods. In Japan they are called ryoribashi.[13] Shorter chopsticks are generally used as eating utensils but are also used for cooking.
  • Tapering: The end of the chopsticks for picking up food are tapered to a blunt or a pointed end. Blunt end chopsticks provide more surface area for holding food and for pushing rice into the mouth. Pointed chopsticks allow for easier manipulation of food and for picking out bones from cooked fish. Pointed ends are also helpful in spearing the food, if the proper technique cannot be mastered. Spearing is seen, however, as improper etiquette. Note, however, that some older styles of chopsticks are untapered, in which case the ends to be held are often marked in some way, e.g. metal bands, or writing or branding.
  • Material: Chopsticks are made from a variety of materials: bamboo, plastic, wood, bone, metal, jade, and ivory.
    • Bamboo and wood chopsticks are cheap, low in temperature conduction and provide good grip for holding food due to their matte surfaces. They can warp and deteriorate with continued use. Almost all cooking and disposable chopsticks are made of bamboo or wood. Disposable unlacquered chopsticks are used especially in restaurants. These often come as a piece of wood that is partially cut and must be split into two chopsticks by the user (demonstrating that they have not been previously used). In Japanese, these are known as waribashi (割り箸). Disposable chopstick wrappers, particularly in takeout food, may also include a toothpick; in Japan such wrappers have a warning on the outside to avoid being stabbed when unwrapping the chopsticks. Natural wood chopsticks, like natural wood food preparation surfaces, have an innate antibacterial property absent from other materials.[14]
    • Plastic chopsticks are cheap, low in temperature conduction and are resistant to wear. Due to their composition, plastic chopsticks are not as effective as wood and bamboo chopsticks are for picking up food because they tend to be slippery. Also, plastic chopsticks cannot be used for cooking since high temperatures may damage the chopsticks and produce toxic compounds.
    • Metal chopsticks are durable and easy to clean but more slippery when compared to plastic or wood. They also tend to be more expensive. Metal chopsticks, especially of the stainless steel variety, are most commonly associated with Korean chopsticks.
    • Materials such as ivory, jade, gold, and silver are typically chosen for luxury. Silver-tipped chopsticks were often used by wealthy people in East Asian cultures, as it was believed that the silver would turn black upon contact with poison.[15]
  • Embellishments: Wooden or bamboo chopsticks can be painted or lacquered to decorate them and make them waterproof. Metal chopsticks are sometimes roughened or scribed on the tapered end to make them less slippery when picking up foods. Higher priced metal chopstick pairs are sometimes connected by a short chain at the untapered end to prevent their separation.

Styles in different cultures

From top to bottom: plastic chopsticks from Taiwan, porcelain chopsticks from mainland China, bamboo chopsticks from Tibet, palmwood chopsticks from Vietnam, stainless flat chopsticks from Korea (plus a matching spoon), a Japanese couple's set (two pairs), Japanese child's chopsticks, and disposable "waribashi" (in wrapper)
  • Chinese: longer sticks that are either square or round in the cross section where they are held, and round in the cross section where they contact food, ending in a blunt tip.
  • Japanese: short to medium length sticks that taper to a pointed end. Japanese chopsticks are traditionally made of wood or bamboo and are lacquered. Some chopstick sets include two lengths of chopsticks: shorter ones for women and longer ones for men. Child-sized chopsticks are widely sold.
  • Korean: short to medium length stainless-steel tapered rods, with a flat rectangular cross section. (Traditionally, they were made of brass or silver.) Many Korean metal chopsticks are ornately decorated at the grip. They are sometimes used to put food on a complementary spoon, which then brings food to the mouth.
  • Vietnamese: long sticks that taper to a blunt point; traditionally wooden. A đũa cả is a large pair of flat chopsticks that is used to serve rice from a pot.

Etiquette

Chopsticks are used in many parts of the world. While principles of etiquette are similar, the finer points may differ from region to region, and there is no single standard for the use of chopsticks. Generally, chopsticks etiquette is similar to general western etiquette regarding eating utensils.

Universal etiquette

  • Chopsticks are not used to make noise, to draw attention, or to gesticulate. Playing with chopsticks is considered bad mannered and vulgar (just as playing with cutlery in a Western environment would be deemed rude).
  • Chopsticks are not used to move bowls or plates.
  • Chopsticks are not used to toy with one's food or with dishes in common.
  • Chopsticks are not used to impale food, save in rare instances. Exceptions include tearing large food items asunder, such as vegetables and kimchi. In informal use, small, difficult-to-pick-up items such as cherry tomatoes or fishballs may be lanced, but this use is frowned upon by traditionalists.
  • Chopsticks should not be left standing vertically in a bowl of rice or other food. Any pair of stick-like objects pointed upward resembles the incense sticks that some Asians use as offerings to deceased family members; certain funerary rites designate offerings of food to the dead using standing chopsticks.

Chinese etiquette

See Chinese table manners

  • In Chinese culture, it is normal to hold the rice bowl—rice in China is rarely served on a plate—up to one's mouth and use chopsticks to push rice directly into the mouth.
  • It is acceptable to transfer food to closely related people (e.g. grandparents, parents, spouse, children, or significant others) if they are having difficulty picking up the food. Also it is a sign of respect to pass food to the elderly first before the dinner starts.
  • It is poor etiquette to tap chopsticks on the edge of one's bowl, as beggars are believed to make this noise to attract attention.[16][17]
  • It is impolite to spear food with a chopstick, unless the food is difficult to handle, such as fishballs.
  • It is considered poor etiquette to point rested chopsticks towards others seated at the table.[18]
  • Chopsticks should not be left vertically stuck into a bowl of rice because it resembles the ritual of incense-burning that symbolizes "feeding" the dead and death in general.
  • Holding chopsticks incorrectly will reflect badly on a child's parents, who have the responsibility of teaching their children.
  • Serving chopsticks (公筷, "community-use chopsticks") are used to take food from serving dishes. These chopsticks are to be returned to the dishes after one has served oneself, and are often a different colour from individuals' chopsticks.

Hong Kong and Cantonese etiquette

  • The eldest (most respected) member of the family holds his/her chopsticks first.
  • Chopsticks are not to be used backwards. However it is "acceptable" to use backwards chopstick to stir or transfer the dish to another plate (if the person is not intending to eat it). This method is used only if there are no serving chopstick around.
  • Resting chopsticks at the top of the bowl means "I've finished". Resting chopsticks on the chopstick stands means "I'd like to continue but am taking a break."

Taiwanese etiquette

Chopsticks with a bento meal in Taiwan
  • Food should not be transferred between chopsticks. Food in need of transportation should be placed onto the recipient's plate or on a new plate for collection.
  • Using chopsticks like a knife and fork to cut soft foods into smaller portions for children is widely accepted.
  • Chopsticks should not be planted on the rice such that they stand up, as this resembles incense stuck in the ash of a censer and is thus connected with death.
  • Chopsticks should not be rested on the table but rather on a provided chopstick rest or lying across the rice bowl in a sideways fashion. Alternatively, they can be placed flat on the bowl when finished.
  • Chopsticks should not be bitten on, or linger in one's mouth for too long.

Japanese etiquette

  • Food should not be transferred from one's own chopsticks to someone else's chopsticks. Japanese people will always offer their plate to transfer it directly, or pass a person's plate along if the distance is great. Transferring directly with chopsticks is how bones are passed as part of Japanese funeral rites.
  • The pointed ends of the chopsticks should be placed on a chopstick rest when the chopsticks are not being used. However, when a chopstick rest is not available as it is often the case in restaurants using waribashi (disposable chopsticks), a person may make a chopstick rest by folding the paper case that contained the chopsticks.
  • Reversing chopsticks to use the opposite clean end is commonly used to move food from a communal plate, although it is not considered to be proper manners.[citation needed] Rather, the group should ask for extra chopsticks to transfer food from a communal plate.
  • Chopsticks should not be crossed on a table, as this symbolizes death, or vertically stuck in the rice, which is done during a funeral.
  • It is rude to rub wooden chopsticks together after breaking them apart, as this communicates to the host that the user thinks the chopsticks are cheap.[citation needed]
  • Chopsticks should be placed right-left direction; the tips should be on the left. Placing diagonal, vertical and crossing each stick are not acceptable both in home and restaurant manners.
  • In formal use, disposable chopsticks (waribashi) should be replaced into the wrapper at the end of a meal.

Korean etiquette

In Korea, chopsticks are paired with a spoon, and there are conventions for how these are used together.

  • The elders pick up the utensils first, then the younger ones do.
  • It is considered uncultured and rude to pick up a dish or a bowl to bring it closer to one's mouth, and eat its content with chopsticks (except certain noodle dishes like naengmyeon). Dishes are to be left on the table at all times, and a spoon is used alongside chopsticks, if the food lifted "drips". This is in stark contrast to Chinese and Japanese convention, which lifts up the rice bowl, often to the mouth.
  • When laying chopsticks down on the table next to a spoon, one must never put the chopsticks to the left of the spoon. Chopsticks are only laid to the left during the food preparation for the funeral or the memorial service for the deceased family members, known as jesa.
  • It is rude to use the same hand to hold both chopsticks and a spoon at the same time and laying the spoon down on the table while one uses chopsticks.
  • Use a spoon to eat soup, stew and liquid side dishes, and chopsticks for solid side dishes. Either may be used for eating rice.

Vietnamese etiquette

  • As with Chinese etiquette, the rice bowl is raised to the mouth and the rice is pushed into the mouth using the chopsticks.
  • Unlike with Chinese dishes, it is also practical to use chopsticks to pick up rice in plates, such as fried rice.
  • One should not pick up food from the table and place it directly in the mouth. Food must be placed in your own bowl first.
  • Chopsticks should not be placed in the mouth while choosing food.
  • Chopsticks should never be placed in a "V" shape when done eating; it is interpreted as a bad omen.

Environmental impact

Disposable chopsticks in a university cafeteria in Japan.
Disposable chopsticks in a warehouse in Japan.

The most widespread use of disposable chopsticks is in Japan, where around a total of 24 billion pairs are used each year,[19][20][21] which is equivalent to almost 200 pairs per person annually.[22] In China, an estimated 45 billion pairs of disposable chopsticks are produced annually.[22] This adds up to 1.66 million cubic metres of timber[23] or 25 million fully grown trees every year.[22] In April 2006, the People's Republic of China imposed a five percent tax on disposable chopsticks to reduce waste of natural resources by over-consumption.[24][25] This measure had the most effect in Japan as many of its disposable chopsticks are imported from China,[22] which account for over 90% of the Japanese market.[26][21]

American manufacturers have begun exporting American-made chopsticks to China, using sweet gum and poplar wood as "they do not need to be artificially lightened with chemicals and bleach" and are appealing to Asian consumers. The USA also has an abundance of wood, reducing the number of trees that are cut down in Asia.[27]

The American-born Taiwanese singer Leehom Wang has publicly advocated use of reusable chopsticks made from sustainable materials.[28][29] In Japan, reusable chopsticks are known as "my hashi" (meaning "my chopsticks").[30][31]

Health effects

A 2003 study found that regular use of chopsticks by the elderly may slightly increase the risk of osteoarthritis in the hand, a condition in which cartilage is worn out, leading to pain and swelling in the hand joints.[32] There have also been concerns regarding the use of certain disposable chopsticks made from dark wood bleached white that may pose a health risk, causing coughing or leading to asthma.[33]

A 2006 Hong Kong Department of Health survey found that the proportion of people using serving chopsticks, spoons or other serving utensils has increased from 46% to 65% since the SARS outbreak in 2003.[34]

See also

References

  1. ^ Merriam-Webster Online. "Definition of chopstick".
  2. ^ Norman, Jerry (1988) Chinese, Cambridge University Press, p267.
  3. ^ Oxford English Dictionary, Second Edition 1989
  4. ^ Wilkinson, Endymion (2000). Chinese history: A manual. Cambridge: Harvard University. p. 647. ISBN 9780674002494.
  5. ^ Norman, Jerry (1988) Chinese, Cambridge University Press, p76.
  6. ^ "otemoto". En.allexperts.com. 2002-12-08. Retrieved 2009-07-14.
  7. ^ "Chinese Chopsticks". Retrieved 2007-11-01.
  8. ^ Roberts, J.A.G. (2002). China to Chinatown: Chinese food in the West. London: Reaktion. p. 22. ISBN 9781861892270.
  9. ^ 卢茂村 (Lu, Maocun). "筷子古今谈 (An Introduction to Chopsticks)," 农业考古 (Agricultural Archaeology), 2004, No. 1:209-216. ISSN 1006-2335.
  10. ^ "Le due leggende sulle bacchette cinesi". Italian.cri.cn. 2008-06-19. Retrieved 2009-07-14.
  11. ^ Needham, Joseph. (2000). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 6, Biology and Biological Technology, Part 5, Fermentations and Food Science. Cambridge University Press. p. 104. footnote 161.
  12. ^ Reiber, Beth (1996). Frommer's Japan (Spencer, Janie ed.). New York: Macmillan. p. 75. ISBN 9780471763918.
  13. ^ Shimbo, Hiroko (2000). The Japanese Kitchen. Boston, MA: Harvard Common Press. p. 15. ISBN 1558321772.
  14. ^ "Study on Antibacterial Properties of Wood". Faculty.vetmed.ucdavis.edu. Retrieved 2009-07-14.
  15. ^ Access Asia: Primary Speaking and Learning Units. Carlton, Vic.: Curriculum Corporation. 1996. p. 80. ISBN 9781863663458.
  16. ^ "Difference". Chinatoday.com.cn. Retrieved 2009-07-14.
  17. ^ "Pandaphone". Pandaphone. Retrieved 2009-07-14.
  18. ^ [1][dead link]
  19. ^ Hayes, Dayle; Laudan, Rachel (2009). Food and Nutrition. New York: Marshall Cavendish Reference. p. 1043. ISBN 9780761478270.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  20. ^ Rowthorn, Chris (2007). Japan (10th ed.). Lonely Planet. p. 73. ISBN 9781741046670.
  21. ^ a b "Rising Chinese chopstick prices help Japan firm". Asia Times Online. Asia Times. Retrieved 28 September 2011.
  22. ^ a b c d "Japan fears shortage of disposable chopsticks: China slaps 5 percent tax on wooden utensils over deforestation concerns". msnbc.com. Retrieved 19 September 2011.
  23. ^ "Annual output of 4 billion pairs of biodegradable plant fiber chopsticks project of Jilin Agricultural Science Hi-tech Industry Co., Ltd". People's Government of Jilin Province. Retrieved 28 September 2011.
  24. ^ "China imposes chopsticks tax". ABC News. Retrieved 28 September 2011.
  25. ^ "As China goes ecological, Japan fears shortage of disposable chopsticks". USA TODAY. Retrieved 28 September 2011.
  26. ^ "Japan faces chopsticks crisis". The Guardian. Retrieved 28 September 2011.
  27. ^ http://www.voanews.com/english/news/usa/Chopsticks-Carry-Made-in-America-Label-125740793.html
  28. ^ "Wang Leehom, "Change My Ways"". CRIenglish.com. 2007-08-22. Retrieved 2008-09-07. {{cite web}}: External link in |publisher= (help)
  29. ^ http://arts.cultural-china.com/en/97A3158A9187.html. Retrieved 19 September 2011. {{cite news}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  30. ^ "Chopstick Economics and the "My Hashi" Boom | Japan". Stippy. Retrieved 2010-08-16.
  31. ^ http://www.my-hashi.jp/purpose/index.html
  32. ^ "Chopsticks and Osteoarthritis in the Hand". Niams.nih.gov. Retrieved 2009-07-14.
  33. ^ "Xinhuanet News Article". News.xinhuanet.com. 2005-06-02. Retrieved 2009-07-14.
  34. ^ "Hong Kong Department of Health survey". .news.gov.hk. 2006-12-26. Retrieved 2009-07-14.
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