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Konbaung dynasty

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Konbaung Dynasty
ကုန်းဘောင်ခေတ်
1752–1885
Flag of Konbaung Dynasty
StatusKingdom
CapitalShwebo (1752–1760)
Sagaing (1760–1765)
Ava (1765–1783, 1823–1841)
Amarapura (1783–1823, 1841–1859)
Mandalay (1859–1885)
Common languagesBurmese
Religion
Theravada Buddhism
GovernmentMonarchy
• 1752–1760
Alaungpaya (first)
• 1878–1885
Thibaw (last)
LegislatureHluttaw
History 
• Founding of dynasty
21 March 1752
• Reunification of Burma
1752–1757
1760–1854
1765–1769
• Anglo-Burmese Wars
1824–1826, 1852, 1885
• End of dynasty
29 November 1885
Area
1824 [1]794,000 km2 (307,000 sq mi)
1826584,000 km2 (225,000 sq mi)
1852470,000 km2 (180,000 sq mi)
1875460,000 km2 (180,000 sq mi)
Population
• 1824 [1]
3,000,000
CurrencyKyat
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Toungoo Dynasty
Restored Hanthawaddy Kingdom
Mrauk-U Kingdom
British Burma

The Konbaung Dynasty (Burmese: ကုန်းဘောင်ခေတ်, pronounced [kóuɴbàuɴ kʰɪʔ]) was the last dynasty that ruled Burma (Myanmar) from 1752 to 1885. The dynasty created the second largest empire in Burmese history, and continued the administrative reforms begun by the Toungoo dynasty, laying the foundations of modern state of Burma. The reforms proved insufficient to stem the advance of the British, who defeated the Burmese in all three Anglo-Burmese Wars over a six-decade span (1824–1885) and ended the millennium-old Burmese monarchy in 1885.

The dynasty was founded by a village-chief Alaungpaya in 1752 to challenge the Restored Hanthawaddy Kingdom which had just toppled the Toungoo dynasty. By 1759, Alaungpaya's forces had reunited all of Burma (and Manipur), and driven out the French and the British who had provided arms to Hanthawaddy.[2] In 1760, Burma began a series of wars with Siam that would last well into the middle of 19th century. By 1770, Alaungpaya's heirs had temporarily defeated Siam (1767), subdued much of Laos (1765) and defeated four invasions by Qing China (1765–1769).[3] With the Burmese preoccupied for another two decades by another impending invasion by the Chinese,[4] the Siamese recovered their territories by 1770, and went on to capture Lan Na by 1776.[5] Burma and Siam went to war again in 1785–1787, 1792–1793, 1804, 1808–1811 and 1852–1854, but all resulted in a stalemate. After decades of war, the two countries exchanged Tenasserim (to Burma) and Lan Na (to Siam).

Faced with a powerful China and a resurgent Siam in the east, Bodawpaya acquired western kingdoms of Arakan (1784), Manipur (1813) and Assam (1817), leading to a long ill-defined border with British India.[6] The British decisively defeated the Burmese in the First Anglo-Burmese War (1824–1826). Burma was forced to cede Arakan, Manipur, Assam and Tenasserim, and pay a large indemnity of one million pounds. In 1852, the British easily seized Lower Burma in the Second Anglo-Burmese War. King Mindon tried to modernize the kingdom, and in 1875 avoided annexation by ceding the Karenni States. The British, alarmed by the consolidation of French Indo-China, annexed the remainder of the country in the Third Anglo-Burmese War in 1885.

Konbaung kings extended administrative reforms begun in the Restored Toungoo Dynasty period (1599–1752), and achieved unprecedented levels of internal control and external expansion. They tightened control in the lowlands and reduced the hereditary privileges of Shan chiefs. They also instituted commercial reforms that increased government income and rendered it more predictable. Money economy continued to gained ground. In 1857, the crown inaugurated a full-fledged system of cash taxes and salaries, assisted by the country's first standardized silver coinage.[3] Cultural integration continued. For the first time in history, the Burmese language and culture came to predominate the entire Irrawaddy valley, with the Mon language and ethnicity completely eclipsed by 1830. The nearer Shan principalities adopted more lowland norms. The evolution and growth of Burmese literature and theater continued, aided by an extremely high adult male literacy rate for the era (half of all males and 5% of females).[7] From the late eighteenth century, mainly beginning with Bodawpaya, the state was guided in its cultural and literary projects, as well as religious reform, by the Sudhamma reformers, centred on a core of monastic and lay elites from the Lower Chindwin area. The state thereafter attempted to exert its authority over various intellectual assets.[8] Nonetheless, the extent and pace of reforms were uneven and ultimately proved insufficient to stem the advance of British colonialism.[9]

Rise and fall

Lion Throne in the throne hall of the royal palace of Amarapura (Painting by Colesworthy Grant, 1855

An expansionist dynasty, the Konbaung kings waged campaigns against Manipur, Arakan, Assam, the Mon kingdom of Pegu and the Siamese kingdom of Ayutthaya, thus establishing the Third Burmese Empire. Subject to later wars and treaties with the British, the modern state of Burma can trace its current borders to these events.

Alaungpaya's second son, Hsinbyushin, came to the throne after a short reign by his elder brother, Naungdawgyi (1760–1763). He continued his father's expansionist policy and finally took Ayutthaya in 1767, after seven years of fighting.

The traditional concept of kingship in southeast Asia which aspired to the Chakravartin Kings or 'Universal Monarchs' creating their own Mandala or field of power within the Jambudipa universe, along with the possession of the white elephant which allowed them to assume the title Hsinbyushin or Hsinbyumyashin (Lord of the White Elephant/s), played a significant role in their endeavours. Of more earthly import was the historical threat of periodic raids and aiding of internal rebellions as well as invasion and imposition of overlordship from the neighbouring kingdoms of the Mon, Tai Shans and Manipuris.[10]

In the defence of its realm, the dynasty fought four wars successfully against the Qing Dynasty of China which saw the threat of the expansion of Burmese power in the East. In 1770, despite his victory over the Chinese armies, King Hsinbyushin sued for peace with China and concluded a treaty in order to maintain bilateral trade with the Middle Kingdom which was very important for the dynasty at that time. The Qing Dynasty then opened up its markets and restored trading with Burma in 1788 after reconciliation. Thenceforth peaceful and friendly relations prevailed between China and Burma for a long time.

Facing a greater threat however from powerful Western nations, the Konbaung Dynasty tried to modernize the kingdom. Europeans began to set up trading posts in the Irrawaddy delta region during this period. Konbaung tried to maintain its independence by balancing between the French and the British. In the end it failed, the British severed diplomatic relations in 1811, and the dynasty fought and lost three wars against the British Empire, culminating in total annexation of Burma by the British.

In 1837, King Bagyidaw's brother, Tharrawaddy, seized the throne and had the chief queen Me Nu, her brother, executed. Tharrawaddy made no attempt to improve relations with Britain.

The last king, Thibaw Min (right), here with Queen Supayalat and her sister Princess Supayaji, was forcibly deposed in a war with the British colonialists in 1885

His son Pagan, who became king in 1846, executed thousands - some sources say as many as 6,000 - of his wealthier and more influential subjects on trumped-up charges.[citation needed] During his reign, relations with the British became increasingly strained. In 1852, the Second Anglo-Burmese War broke out. Pagan was succeeded by his younger brother, the progressive Mindon. Mindon attempted to bring Burma into greater contact with the outside world, and hosted the Fifth Great Buddhist Synod in 1872 at Mandalay, gaining the respect of the British and the admiration of his own people.

Mindon died before he could name a successor, and Thibaw, a lesser prince, was manoeuvred onto the throne by one of Mindon's queens and her daughter, Supayalat. (Rudyard Kipling mentions her as Thibaw's queen, and borrows her name, in his poem The Road to Mandalay) The new King Thibaw proceeded, under Supayalat's direction, to massacre all likely contenders to the throne. This massacre was conducted by the queen.[citation needed]

The dynasty came to an end in 1885 with the forced abdication and exile of the king and the royal family to India. The annexation was announced in the British parliament as a New Year gift to Queen Victoria on 1 January 1886.

Although the dynasty had conquered vast tracts of territory, its direct power was limited to its capital and the fertile plains of the Irrawaddy valley. The Konbaung rulers enacted harsh levies and had a difficult time fighting internal rebellions. At various times, the Shan states paid tribute to the Konbaung Dynasty, but unlike the Mon lands, were never directly controlled by the Burmese.

Society

Burmese court officials in 1795

During Konbaung rule, society was centred around the Konbaung king. The rulers of the Konbaung Dynasty took several wives and they were ranked, with half-sisters of the king holding the most powerful positions. The Konbaung kings fathered numerous children, creating a huge extended royal family which formed the power base of the dynasty and competed over influence at the royal court.

It also posed problems of succession at the same time often resulting in royal massacres carried out in such a way that royal blood must not be shed.

Burmese society was highly stratified during Konbaung rule. Under the royal family, the nobility administered the government, led the armies, and governed large population centres. The Konbaung Dynasty kept a detailed lineage of Burmese nobility written on palm leaf manuscripts, peisa, that were later destroyed by British soldiers. At the local level, the myothugyi, hereditary local elites, administered the townships controlled by the kingdom.

Military captives

A Cassay Horseman
File:IMG 2344.JPG
Konbaung era Myinkhin Thabin

Captives from various military campaigns in their hundreds and thousands were brought back to the kingdom and resettled as hereditary servants to royalty and nobility or dedicated to pagodas and temples; these captives added new knowledge and skills to Burmese society and enriched Burmese culture. They were encouraged to marry into the host community thus enriching the gene pool as well.[11] Captives from Manipur formed the cavalry called Kathè myindat (Cassay Horse) and also Kathè a hmyauk tat (Cassay Artillery) in the royal Burmese army. Even captured French soldiers, led by Chevalier Milard, were forced into the Burmese army.[12] The incorporated French troops with their guns and muskets played a key role in the later battles between the Burmese and the Mons. They became an elite corps, which was to play a role in the Burmese battles against the Siamese (attacks and capture of Ayutthaya from 1760 to 1765) and the Manchus (battles against the Chinese armies of the Qian Long emperor from 1766 to 1769).[12][13]

Outside of hereditary positions, there were two primary paths to influence: joining the military (min hmu-daan) and joining the Buddhist Sangha in the monasteries. A small community of foreign scholars, missionaries and merchants also lived in Konbaung society. Besides mercenaries and adventurers who had offered their services since the arrival of the Portuguese in the 16th century, a few Europeans served as ladies-in-waiting to the last queen Supayalat in Mandalay, a missionary established a school attended by Mindon's several sons including the last king Thibaw, and an Armenian had served as a king's minister at Amarapura.

Reforms

Realizing the need to modernize, the Konbaung rulers tried to enact various reforms with limited success. King Mindon with his able brother Crown Prince Kanaung established state-owned factories to produce modern weaponry and goods; in the end, these factories proved more costly than effective in staving off foreign invasion and conquest.

Mindon also tried to reduce the tax burden by lowering the heavy income tax and created a property tax, as well as duties on foreign exports. Ironically, these policies had the reverse effect of increasing the tax burden, as the local elites used the opportunity to enact new taxes without lowering the old ones; they were able to do so as control from the centre was weak. In addition, the duties on foreign exports stifled the burgeoning trade and commerce.

Capitals

The royal palace of Mandalay

Under the Konbaung Dynasty, the capital shifted several times for religious, political, and strategic reasons. During such a move, the entire palace complex was taken down and transported on elephants to the chosen site. These capitals were:

Rulers

No Title Literal meaning Lineage Reign Notes
1 Alaungpaya Future Buddha-King village chief 1752-1760 founder of the dynasty and the Third Burmese Empire, invaded Ayutthaya
2 Naungdawgyi Royal Elder Brother son 1760-1763 invaded Ayutthaya with his father
3 Hsinbyushin Lord of the White Elephant brother 1763-1776 invaded and sacked Ayutthaya, invaded Chiang Mai and Laos, invaded Manipur, successfully repulsed 4 Chinese invasions
4 Singu King Singu son 1776-1781
5 Phaungka Younger Brother (Lord of Phaungka) cousin (son of Naungdawgyi) 1782 the shortest reign in Burmese history of just over one week
6 Bodawpaya Royal Lord Grandfather uncle (son of Alaungpaya) 1782-1819 invaded and annexed Arakan, invaded Ayutthaya
7 Bagyidaw Royal Elder Uncle grandson 1819-1837 invaded Ayutthaya with his grandfather, invaded Assam and Manipur, defeated in the First Anglo-Burmese War
8 Tharrawaddy King Tharrawaddy brother 1837-1846 fought in the First Anglo-Burmese War as Prince of Tharrawaddy
9 Pagan King Pagan son 1846-1853 overthrown by Mindon after his defeat in the Second Anglo-Burmese War
10 Mindon King Mindon brother 1853-1878 sued for peace with the British; had a very narrow escape in a palace rebellion by two of his sons but his brother Crown Prince Ka Naung was killed
11 Thibaw King Thibaw son 1878-1885 the last king of Burma, forced to abdicate and exiled to India after his defeat in the Third Anglo-Burmese War

Note: Naungdawgyi was the eldest brother of Hsinbyushin and Bodawpaya who was the grandfather of Bagyidaw who was Mindon's elder uncle. They were known by these names to posterity, although the formal titles at their coronation by custom ran to some length in Pali; Mintayagyi paya (Lord Great King) was the equivalent of Your/His Majesty whereas Hpondawgyi paya (Lord Great Glory) would be used by the royal family.

Early impressions

History of Myanmar
(Sri Ksetra Kingdom, Tagaung Kingdom)
(Thaton Kingdom)
flag Myanmar portal

Michael Symes appeared to display an uncanny prescience when he offered his opinion thus in the preface to his " An Account of an Embassy to the Kingdom of Ava, sent by the Governor-General of India, in the year 1795":

The Birmans, under their present monarch (Bodawpaya), are certainly rising fast in the scale of Oriental nations; and, it is hoped, that a long respite from foreign wars, will give them leisure to improve their natural advantages. Knowledge increases by commerce; and as they are not shackled by any prejudices of casts, restricted to hereditary occupations, or forbidden from participating with strangers in every social bond, their advancement will, in all probability be rapid. At present so far from being in a state of intellectual darkness, although they have not explored the depths of science, or reached to excellence in the finer arts, they yet have an undeniable claim to the character of a civilised, and well instructed, people. Their laws are wise and pregnant with sound morality; their police is better regulated than in most European countries; their natural disposition is friendly, and hospitable to strangers; and their manners rather expressive of manly candour, than courteous dissimulation: the gradations of rank, and the respect due to station, are maintained with a scrupulosity which never relaxes. A knowledge of letters is so widely diffused, that there are no mechanics, few of the peasantry, or even the common watermen (usually the most illiterate class) who cannot read and write in the vulgar tongue. Few, however are versed in more erudite volumes of science, which, containing many Shanscrit terms, and often written in Pali text, are (like the Hindoo Shasters) above the comprehension of the multitude; but the feudal system, which cherishes ignorance, and renders man the property of man, still operates as a check to civilisation and improvement. This is a bar which gradually weakens, as their acquaintance with the customs and manners of other nations extends; and unless the rage of civil discord be again excited, or some foreign power impose an alien yoke, the Birmans bid fair to be a prosperous, wealthy, and enlightened people.[11]

Notes

  1. ^ GE Harvey (1925). "Notes: Numerical Note". History of Burma. London: Frank Cass & Co. Ltd. p. 333.
  2. ^ Lt. Gen. Sir Arthur P. Phayre (1967). History of Burma (2 ed.). London: Susil Gupta. p. 153.
  3. ^ a b Victor B Lieberman (2003). Strange Parallels: Southeast Asia in Global Context, c. 800–1830, volume 1, Integration on the Mainland. Cambridge University Press. pp. 184–187. ISBN 978-0-521-80496-7.
  4. ^ Yingcong Dai (2004). "A Disguised Defeat: The Myanmar Campaign of the Qing Dynasty". Modern Asian Studies. Cambridge University Press: 145–189.
  5. ^ David K Wyatt (2003). Thailand: A Short History (2 ed.). p. 125. ISBN 9780300084757.
  6. ^ Thant Myint-U (2006). The River of Lost Footsteps--Histories of Burma. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. p. 109. ISBN 978-0-374-16342-6, 0-374-16342-1. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)
  7. ^ ibid. pp. 202–206
  8. ^ Charney, Michael W. Powerful Learning: Buddhist Literati and the Throne in Burma's Last Dynasty, 1752-1885.
  9. ^ Thant Myint-U, The Making of Modern Burma.
  10. ^ Pamaree Surakiat (2006). "The Changing Nature of Conflict between Burma and Siam as seen from the Growth and Development of Burmese States from the 16th to the 19th Centuries" (PDF). Asia Research Institute. pp. 8, 11, 25. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  11. ^ a b Michael Symes (1800). An Account of an Embassy to the Kingdom of Ava, sent by the Governor-General of India, in the year 1795 (PDF). London: SOAS Spring 2006.
  12. ^ a b Findlay, p.277
  13. ^ Southeast Asia By Keat Gin Ooi, p.611

See also

References

  • Charney, Michael W. Powerful Learning: Buddhist Literati and the Throne in Burma's Last Dynasty, 1752-1885. [1]
  • Findlay, Ronald and O'Rourke, Kevin H. (2007) Power and Plenty: Trade, War, and the World Economy in the Second Millennium [2]
  • Koenig, William J. "The Burmese Polity, 1752-1819: Politics, Administration, and Social Organization in the early Kon-baung Period", Michigan Papers on South and Southest Asia, Number 34, 1990.
  • Lieberman, Victor B. “ Political Consolidation in Burma Under the Early Konbaung Dynasty, 1752-c. 1820.” Journal of Asia History 30.2 (1996): 152-168.
  • Pollak, Oliver B. "Dynasticism and Revolt: Crisis of Kingship in Burma, 1837-1851." Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 7 (1976): 187-196.
  • Thant Myint-U, The Making of Modern Burma, ISBN 0-521-79914-7

External links

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