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Not to be confused with Solomon's Temple, Buxton.
A sketch of Solomon's Temple as described in the Hebrew Bible. Cross section, looking West (above). East elevation (below).
Reconstruction of the Temple of Solomon in Jerusalem according to the description from the Bible.

Solomon's Temple, also known as the First Temple, was the Holy Temple (Hebrew: בֵּית־הַמִּקְדָּשׁ: Bet HaMikdash; Arabic: بيت المقدس: Beit al-Quds) in ancient Jerusalem, on the Temple Mount (also known as Mount Zion), before its destruction by Nebuchadnezzar II after the Siege of Jerusalem of 587 BCE.

According to the Hebrew Bible, the temple was constructed under Solomon, king of the Israelites. This would date its construction to the 10th century BCE, although it is possible that an earlier Jebusite sanctuary had stood on the site. During the kingdom of Judah, the temple was dedicated to Yahweh, the God of Israel, and is said to have housed the Ark of the Covenant. Rabbinic sources state that the First Temple stood for 410 years and, based on the 2nd-century work Seder Olam Rabbah, place construction in 832 BCE and destruction in 422 BCE (3338 AM), 165 years later than secular estimates.

Because of the religious sensitivities involved, and the politically volatile situation in East Jerusalem, only limited archaeological surveys of the Temple Mount have been conducted. No excavations have been allowed on the Temple Mount during modern times. There is no direct archaeological evidence for the existence of Solomon's Temple, and no mentions of it in the surviving contemporary extra-biblical literature. An Ivory pomegranate mentions priests in the house of YHWH, and an inscription recording the Temple's restoration under Jehoash have appeared on the antiquities market, but the authenticity of both has been challenged and they remain the subject of controversy. Another possible but disputed mention is in a Judean inscription, probably from the 7th century BCE, that refers to the "House of Yahweh" and a king called Ashyahu.[1]

History

King Solomon dedicates the Temple at Jerusalem, painting by James Jacques Joseph Tissot (French, 1836–1902) or followers

The earliest source of information on the First Temple is the Hebrew Bible (or Old Testament). According to the biblical sources, the temple was constructed under King Solomon during Israel's period of united monarchy. This puts the date of its construction in the mid-10th century BCE.[2] Some scholars have speculated that a Jebusite sanctuary may have previously occupied the site.[3] During the kingdom of Judah, the temple was dedicated to Yahweh, the God of Israel and is said to have housed the Ark of the Covenant.[4] Rabbinic sources state that the First Temple stood for 410 years and, based on the 2nd-century work Seder Olam Rabbah, place construction in 832 BCE and destruction in 422 BCE (3338 AM), 165 years later than secular estimates.[5]

The following is a summary of the history according to Book of Samuel and Book of Kings, with notes on the variations to this story in the later Book of Chronicles.

The Mishkan (dwelling place) of the god of Israel, was originally the portable shrine called the Ark of the Covenant, which was placed in the Tabernacle tent. King David, having unified all Israel, brought the Ark to his new capital, Jerusalem, intending to build there a temple in order to house the Ark in a permanent place. David purchased a threshing-floor for the site of the Temple (1 Chronicles 21–22), but then Yahweh told him that he would not be permitted to build a temple. The task of building therefore passed to David's son and successor, Solomon. 1 Kings 6:1–38, 1 Kings Chapter 7, and Chapter 8 describe the construction and dedication of the Temple under Solomon.

King Solomon requested the aid of King Hiram of Tyre to provide both the quality materials and skilled craftsmen. During the construction, a special inner room, named in Hebrew Kodesh Hakodashim (Holy of Holies), was prepared to receive and house the Ark of the Covenant (1 Kings 6:19); and when the Temple was dedicated, the Ark—containing the Tablets of Stone—was placed therein (1 Kings 8:6–9).

The exact location of the First Temple is unknown: it is believed to have been situated upon the hill which forms the site of the 1st century Second Temple and present-day Temple Mount, where the Dome of the Rock is situated. However, two other, slightly different sites have been proposed on this same hill: one places the stone altar at the location of the rock which is now beneath the gilded dome, with the rest of the temple to the west. The Well of Souls was, according to this theory, a pit for the remnants of the blood services of the korbanot. The other theory places the Holy of Holies atop this rock. Still another location has recently been proposed between the Dome of the Rock and the gilded dome, based on orientation to the eastern wall, drainage channels, orientation of the platform stones, and the location of a possible Boaz pillar base.[6]

2 Chronicles 12:9, and 1 Kings 14:26 describe the Sack of Jerusalem by the Pharaoh Shishaq, who "took away the treasures of the house of the LORD, and the treasures of the king's house."

2 Kings 12:4–16 describes arrangements for the refurbishment of the Temple in the time of king Jehoash of Judah in the 9th century BCE. According to 2 Kings 14:14 the Temple was looted by Jehoash of Israel in the early 8th century and again by King Ahaz in the late 8th century (2 Kings 16:8). Ahaz also installed some cultic innovations in the Temple which were abhorrent to the author of 1–2 Kings (2 Kings 16:10–18).

The Temple also figures in the account of King Hezekiah, who turned Judah away from idols;[7] when later in the same century Hezekiah is confronted with a siege by the Assyrian king Sennacherib (2 Kings 18:23, 19:1 and the Taylor prism), Hezekiah "instead of plundering the temple treasuries... now uses the temple the way it is designed to be used — as a house of prayer (2 Kings 19:1–14).[8]

Hezekiah's son, however, is much different from his father and during the reign of Manasseh of Judah in the early and middle seventh century (2 Kings 21:4–9), Manasseh makes innovations to the Temple cult. He has been described as a Solomon who also fell into idolatry, and Manasseh is described as a king who "makes" (2 Kings 21:3–7) or "builds" (2 Kings 21:3) high places (cf. 1 Kings 11:7) (see Deuteronomy 12 for the prohibition against high place worship), yet while Solomon's idolatry was punished by a divided kingdom, Manessah's idolatry was punished by exile.[9]

King Josiah, the grandson of Manasseh, refurbished and made changes to the Temple by removing idolatrous vessels and destroying the idolatrous priesthood c. 621 BCE (2 Kings 22:3–9; 23:11–12). He also suppressed worship at altars other than the Temple's.

The Temple was plundered by the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar when the Babylonians attacked Jerusalem during the brief reign of Jehoiachin c. 598 (2 Kings 24:13), Josiah's grandson. A decade later, Nebuchadnezzar again besieged Jerusalem and after 30 months finally breached the city walls in 587 BCE, subsequently burning the Temple, along with most of the city (2 Kings 25). According to Jewish tradition, the Temple was destroyed on Tisha B'Av, the 9th day of Av (Hebrew calendar).

Architectural description

A sketch of Solomon's Temple based on descriptions in the Tanakh

Several temples in Mesopotamia, many in Egypt, and some of the Phoenicians are now known. The description given of Solomon's Temple is not a copy of any of these, but embodied features recognisable in all of them. Its general form is reminiscent of Egyptian sanctuaries and closely matches that of other ancient temples in the region, however the complexity of inner chambers and unique functions does distinguish the temple strongly.[10][11][12]

The detailed descriptions provided in the Tanakh and educated guesses based on the remains of other temples in the region are the sources for reconstructions of its appearance. Technical details are lacking, since the scribes who wrote the books were not architects or engineers.[11] Nevertheless, the recorded plans and measurements have inspired Replicas of the Jewish Temple and influenced later structures around the world.

Reconstructions differ; the following is largely based on Easton's Bible Dictionary and the Jewish Encyclopedia:

Most Holy Place

The Kodesh Hakodashim, or Holy of Holies, (1 Kings 6:19; 8:6), also called the "Inner House" (6:27), (Heb. 9:3) was 20 cubits in length, breadth, and height. The usual explanation for the discrepancy between its height and the 30-cubit height of the temple is that its floor was elevated, like the cella of other ancient temples.[11] It was floored and wainscotted with cedar of Lebanon (1 Kings 6:16), and its walls and floor were overlaid with gold (6:20, 21, 30). It contained two cherubim of olive-wood, each 10 cubits high (1 Kings 6:16, 20, 21, 23–28) and each having outspread wings of 10 cubits span, so that, since they stood side by side, the wings touched the wall on either side and met in the center of the room. There was a two-leaved door between it and the Holy Place overlaid with gold (2 Chr. 4:22); also a veil of tekhelet (blue), purple, and crimson and fine linen (2 Chr. 3:14; compare Exodus 26:33). It had no windows (1 Kings 8:12) and was considered the dwelling-place of the "name" of God.

The color scheme of the veil was symbolic. Blue represented the heavens, while red or crimson represented the earth. Purple, a combination of the two colors, represents a meeting of the heavens and the earth.

View of the House with ceiling removed. This image is a rendering of a 3-D computer model.

Holy Place

The Hekhal, or Holy Place, (1 Kings 8:8–10), called also the "greater house" (2 Chr. 3:5) and the "temple" (1 Kings 6:17); the word also means "palace",[11] was of the same width and height as the Holy of Holies, but 40 cubits in length. Its walls were lined with cedar, on which were carved figures of cherubim, palm-trees, and open flowers, which were overlaid with gold. Chains of gold further marked it off from the Holy of Holies. The floor of the Temple was of fir-wood overlaid with gold. The door-posts, of olive-wood, supported folding-doors of fir. The doors of the Holy of Holies were of olive-wood. On both sets of doors were carved cherubim, palm-trees, and flowers, all being overlaid with gold (1 Kings 6:15 et seq.)

Porch

The Ulam, or porch, acted as an entrance before the Temple on the east (1 Kings 6:3; 2 Chr. 3:4; 9:7). This was 20 cubits long (corresponding to the width of the Temple) and 10 cubits deep (1 Kings 6:3). (ESV 2 Chr. 3:4) notes that this porch was 20 cubits high. The description does not specify whether a wall separated it from the next chamber. In the porch stood the two pillars Jachin and Boaz (1 Kings 7:21; 2 Kings 11:14; 23:3), which were 18 cubits in height.

Boaz and Jachin

Two brass pillars named Boaz and Jachin stood in the porch of the Temple. (1 Kings 7:15; 7:21; 2 Kings 11:14; 23:3). Boaz stood on the left (the north) and Jachin on the right (the south). The Bible records their measurements as 27 feet (8.2 m) high and 6 feet (1.8 m) wide (18 by 12 cubits) with a hollow of 4 fingers thick. (Jeremiah 52:21–22). Their 8-foot (2.4 m) high brass capitals were each decorated with rows of 200 carved brass pomegranates, wreathed with seven chains and topped with lilies. (1 Kings 7:13–22, 41–42; 2 Chronicles 4:13) According to most translations of 1 Kings 7:13–22, these two pillars were cast of brass, though some believe the original Hebrew word used to describe their material, "nehosheth", is actually either bronze or copper, because the Hebrews were unfamiliar with zinc which, along with copper, is required to create brass.[13][14]

The two pillars had their parallel not only at Tyre but at Byblus, Paphos, and Telloh (see, however, De Sarzec, "Découvertes en Chaldée," pp. 62–64). In Egypt the obelisks expressed the same idea. Those were phallic emblems, being survivals of the primitive Hamito-Semitic "maẓẓebah". Jachin and Boaz were really isolated columns, as Schick has shown, and not, as some have supposed, a part of the ornamentation of the building. Their tops were crowned with ornamentation as if they were lamps; and W. R. Smith supposed that they may have been used as fire-altars. This assumes that they contained cressets for burning the fat.[10]

In the absence of external sources. examination of the biblical text produces several views which are not mutually exclusive. Firstly, the Hebrew word translated as ‘pillars’ in the temple is used for structural columns elsewhere in the Old Testament (e.g. Exodus 27, Judges 16 v25). There is another word translated either as ‘pillar’ or ‘idol’ whenever some covenant or submission is implied, which would apply to a phallic pillar; this word is not used for Jachin and Boaz (see e.g.Genesis 31 v13, Exodus 23 v24, Deuteronomy 12 v3, 2 Samuel 18 v18, etc.). After Moses, this type of pillar/idol becomes unacceptable within the religion. The bible text therefore calls for other explanations than the archaeologists’ phallic pillar suggestion.

The South-North alignment ascribed to Jachin and Boaz allows the following practical astronomical observations without further equipment, assuming only that they were open to the sky at midday..

1. When the shadow of Jachin aligns with Boaz it marks midday: so it might be used to divides the morning and afternoon temple rituals. 2. The last rays of the sun on the tips of the Pillars mark sunset and the end of the day. Dawn is shown similarly. Both have ritual relevance as well as being visible widely in the city. 3. The longest/highest noon shadow of Jachin onto Boaz marks the day of the winter solstice. From this the days to the vernal equinox may be counted in a standardised form, e.g. perhaps thirteen sevens plus a day – analogous to the count of Pentecost ( ). This fixes the earliest possible date for 1st Abib and the start of the new religious year. It allows an intercalary month to be accurately predicted in most cases without knowledge of the metonic cycle. 4. At midnight on the night beginning 15th Abib the shadow of Jachin cast by the Passover Moon aligns with Boaz. This marks the moment when the Destroyer liberated the people from slavery in Egypt, founding the nation (Exodus 12 v29).

In a fledgling state in process of establishing a formal administration these key observations made centrally could be of practical, administrative and ritual importance. Contrast the laxity of Judges 21 v25 with the detailed organisation initiated for the nation and temple throughout 1st Chronicles. Even if not planned, these phenomena at such significant times would have been hard to ignore in the heart of the Temple.

These observations are consistent with the Pentateuch’s attitude to astronomical objects (Genesis 1 v14) as defining days, years and seasons (or festivals). In this view, Jachin and Boaz are like church clocks and bells, telling the time to worship without being objects of worship themselves.

A further view just discernable in the text is that the columns represent the two main supports of the largely theocratic state, namely the priesthood and the king. Jachin was the name of the head of one of the families of priests (1 Chronicles 24 v14): Boaz was the name of King David’s great grandfather (1 Chronicles 2 v12). We find King Jehoash standing in front of ‘his pillar’ in the temple when he was crowned and anointed (2 Kings 11 v12-14, 2 Chronicles 23 v11-13). This was not a votive pillar/idol; but presumably Boaz.

This view fits neatly with history in that the bible reports them crushed when the nation was crushed and taken into exile ( 2 Kings 25 v13 ). When the Jews returned and the temple was rebuilt Jachin and Boaz were not rebuilt. They had not been in Moses tabernacle, they were not in Ezekiel’s vision for a future temple nor in the Christian vision of heaven in Revelation. Their time and usefulness was limited to the period of the Kings.

This view makes the columns of no current relevance other than historical or fictional, according to personal beliefs and pending any independent proofs.

Chambers

Chambers were built about the Temple on the southern, western and northern sides (1 Kings 6:5–10). These formed a part of the building and were used for storage. They were probably one story high at first; two more may have been added later.[11]

Courts

Exterior view of the entire Temple complex as depicted in a 3-D computer model
Closer view of the Inner Court and House as depicted in a 3-D computer model

According to the Bible, two courts surrounded the Temple. The Inner Court (1 Kings 6:36), or Court of the Priests (2 Chr. 4:9), was separated from the space beyond by a wall of three courses of hewn stone, surmounted by cedar beams (1 Kings 6:36). It contained the Altar of burnt-offering (2 Chr. 15:8), the Brazen Sea laver (4:2–5, 10) and ten other lavers (1 Kings 7:38, 39). A brazen altar stood before the Temple (2 Kings 16:14), its dimensions 20 cubits square and 10 cubits high (2 Chr. 4:1). The Great Court surrounded the whole Temple (2 Chr. 4:9). It was here that people assembled to worship. (Jeremiah 19:14; 26:2).

Brazen Sea

Main article: Brazen Sea

The large basin known as the "Brazen Sea" measured 10 cubits wide brim to brim, 5 cubits deep and with a circumference of 30 cubits around the brim, rested on the backs of twelve oxen (1 Kings 7:23–26). The Book of Kings gives its capacity as "2,000 baths" (90 cubic meters[citation needed]), but Chronicles (2 Chr. 4:5–6) inflates this to three thousand baths (136 cubic meters) and states that its purpose was to afford opportunity for the purification by immersion of the body of the priests.

The lavers, each of which held "forty baths" (1 Kings 7:38), rested on portable holders made of bronze, provided with wheels, and ornamented with figures of lions, cherubim, and palm-trees. The author of the books of the Kings describes their minute details with great interest (1 Kings 7:27–37). Josephus reported that the vessels in the Temple were composed of Orichalcum in Antiquities of the Jews. According to 1 Kings 7:48 there stood before the Holy of Holies a golden altar of incense and a table for showbread. This table was of gold, as were also the five candlesticks on each side of it. The implements for the care of the candles—tongs, basins, snuffers, and fire-pans—were of gold; and so were the hinges of the doors.

Archaeology

Because of the religious and political sensitivities involved, no archaeological excavations and only limited surface surveys of the Temple Mount have been conducted.[15][16] There is no direct archaeological evidence for the existence of Solomon's Temple. This building is not mentioned in extra-biblical accounts which have survived.[17]

  • In 2007, artifacts dating to the 8th to 6th centuries BCE were described as being possibly the first physical evidence of human activity at the Temple Mount during the First Temple period. The findings included animal bones; ceramic bowl rims, bases, and body sherds; the base of a juglet used to pour oil; the handle of a small juglet; and the rim of a storage jar.[18][19]
  • By 2006, the Temple Mount Antiquities Salvage Operation had recovered numerous artifacts dating from the 8th to 7th centuries BCE from soil removed in 1999 by the Islamic Religious Trust (Waqf) from the Solomon's Stables area of the Temple Mount. These include stone weights for weighing silver and a First Temple period bulla, or seal impression, containing ancient Hebrew writing which includes the name Netanyahu ben Yaush. Netanyahu is a name mentioned several times in the Book of Jeremiah while the name Yaush appears in the Lachish letters. However, the combination of names was unknown to scholars.[20][21]
  • A thumb-sized ivory pomegranate measuring 44 millimetres (1.7 in) in height bearing an ancient Hebrew inscription "Sacred donation for the priests in the House of YHVH" was believed to have adorned a sceptre used by the high priest in Solomon's Temple. It was considered the most important item of biblical antiquities in the Israel Museum’s collection.[22] However, in 2004, the Israel Antiquities Authority reported the inscription to be a forgery, though the ivory pomegranate itself was dated to the 14th or 13th century BCE.[23] This was based on the report's claim that 3 incised letters in the inscription stopped short of an ancient break, as they would have if carved after the ancient break was made. Since then, it has been proven that one of the letters was indeed carved prior to the ancient break, and the status of the other two letters is now in question. Some paleographers and others have continued to insist that the inscription is ancient and the authenticity of this artifact is still the object of discussion.[24]
  • A possible mention of the temple is in a Judean inscription of unknown provenance, probably dated to the 7th century BCE, that refers to the "House of Yahweh" and a king called Ashyahu.[25][1] The name of Ashyahu is known in other inscriptions, but not from the Bible and not as a king.[1] Stern notes that sanctuaries dedicated to Yahweh existed in other places and there is no certainty that this inscription refers to Jerusalem.[26]
  • Another artifact, the so-called Jehoash Inscription contains a 15 line description of King Jehoash's ninth century BCE restoration of the Temple. Its authenticity was called into question by a report by the Israel Antiquities Authority, which claimed that the surface patina contained microfossils of foraminifera. As these fossils do not dissolve in water, they cannot occur in a calcium carbonate patina, leading investigators to conclude that the patina must be an artificial chemical mix applied to the stone by forgers. This finding has since been undermined by examination of the patina using more advanced techniques, as well as examination of a new break in the stone caused by handling since the original report was issued.[27]
  • In 1940 American archaeologist Nelson Glueck "proclaimed ... that he had discovered the Edomite mines controlled by King Solomon,"[28] allegedly used to construct the Temple's furnishings.[29] Later in '97, investigating the role of "metallurgy in [the] social evolution" of Southern Jordan, University of California anthropologist Tom Levy "started probing the site known as Khirbat en Nahas (Arabic for "ruins of copper")."[28][30] The samples Levy sent off to "Oxford for radiocarbon dating confirmed that Glueck had been on the right track: This was a tenth-century copper production site ‒ and Levy adds ... 'the closest copper source to Jerusalem.'"[28] In response to these findings archaeologist Amihai Mazar has stated, "I believe that if, one day, we should find the copper objects from the temple in Jerusalem, it will prove to come from this area".[31]

Notable mentions

Isaac Newton's diagram of the Temple, 1728

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Temple of Solomon.

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General

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Persons

People associated with the First Temple

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Places

Sites associated with the First Temple

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Footnotes

  1. ^ a b c Bernhard Lang (1998). "The Decalogue in the Light of a Newly Published Palaeo-Hebrew Inscription (Hebrew Ostracon Moussaieff No. 1)". Journal for the Study of the Old Testament. 23: 21–25.
  2. ^ Stevens, Marty E. Temples, tithes, and taxes: the temple and the economic life of ancient Israel, pg. 3. Hendrickson Publishers 2006, ISBN 1-56563-934-0
  3. ^ Peake's commentary on the Bible
  4. ^ Achtemeier, Paul J. and Roger S. Boraas. The HarperCollins Bible Dictionary. San Francisco, CA: HarperSanFrancisco, 1996. p. 1096.
  5. ^ YEisen, Yosef. Miraculous journey: a complete history of the Jewish people from creation to the present, pg. 56. Targum Press 2004, ISBN 1-56871-323-1
  6. ^ New Proposed Location for Solomon's Temple
  7. ^ Peter J. Leithart, 1&2 Kings, Brazos Theological Commentary on the Bible p. 254 (2006).
  8. ^ Peter J. Leithart, 1&2 Kings, Brazos Theological Commentary on the Bible p. 258 (2006).
  9. ^ Peter J. Leithart, 1&2 Kings, Brazos Theological Commentary on the Bible p. 263 (2006).
  10. ^ a b Jewish Encyclopedia: Temple of Solomon
  11. ^ a b c d e De Vaux, 1961.
  12. ^ According to Finkelstein in The Bible Unearthed, the description of the temple is remarkably similar to that of surviving remains of Phoenician temples of the time, and it is certainly plausible, from the point of view of archaeology, that the temple was constructed to the design of Phoenicians.
  13. ^ [http://www.godweb.org/blT0000800.htm Bible Dictionary
  14. ^ King Solomon's Temple, Alex T. Brand
  15. ^ Langmead, Donald; Garnaut, Christine (2001). Encyclopedia of architectural and engineering feats (3rd, illustrated ed.). ABC-CLIO. ISBN 1-57607-112-X, 9781576071120. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)
  16. ^ Handy, Lowell (1997). The age of Solomon: scholarship at the turn of the millennium. Brill. pp. 493–494. ISBN 978-90-04-10476-1.
  17. ^ Finkelstein, Israel, and Silberman, Neil Asher (2002). The Bible Unearthed : Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts. Simon & Schuster. pp. 128–129. ISBN 0-684-86912-8.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  18. ^ "Temple Mount First Temple Period Discoveries". Friends of the Israel Antiquities Authority. Retrieved 2009-10-05.
  19. ^ Milstein, Mati. Solomon's Temple Artifacts Found by Muslim Workers, National Geographic, October 23, 2007
  20. ^ Shragai, Nadav. Temple Mount dirt uncovers First Temple artifacts, Haaretz, October 19, 2006
  21. ^ Netanyahu ben Yaush Seal, 8th–6th century BCE Centre for Online Judaic Studies March 13, 2008
  22. ^ Myre, Greg (2004-12-30). Israel Indicts 4 in 'Brother of Jesus' Hoax and Other Forgeries. New York Times, 30 December 2004.
  23. ^ Ivory pomegranate 'not Solomon's', BBC, (December 24, 2004)
  24. ^ Shanks, Hershel (November–December 2011). "Fudging with Forgeries". Biblical Archaeology Review. 37 (6). Washington, D.C.: Biblical Archaeology Society: 56–58. ISSN 0098-9444.
  25. ^ http://www.nytimes.com/1997/11/11/science/temple-receipt-for-a-3-shekel-donor.html
  26. ^ Ephraim Stern (2003). "The Phoenician source of Palestinian cults at the end of the Iron Age". In W. G. Dever and S. Gitin (ed.). Symbiosis, Symbolism and the Power of the Past. W. F. Albright Institute of Archaeological Research and American Schools of Oriental Research. p. 316.
  27. ^ Shanks, Hershel (November–December 2011). "Fudging with Forgeries". Biblical Archaeology Review. 37 (6). Washington, D.C.: Biblical Archaeology Society: 57–58. ISSN 0098-9444.
  28. ^ a b c Draper 2010: p. 84
  29. ^ Glueck 1944: p. 238
  30. ^ University of California — San Diego (2008-10-28). "King Solomon's Copper Mines?". ScienceDaily. Retrieved December 19, 2010.
  31. ^ Eric Cline, Thomas Levy, Israel Finkelstein, Erez Ben-Yosef, John Grattan, Mohammad Najjar, Marc Beherec, Thomas Higham, Yossi Garfinkel, Oded Yair, Greg Bearman, William Schniedewind, Haagai Misgav, Bill Schniedewind (November 23, 2010). Quest for Solomon's Mines (Television production / DVD). Wadi Faynan: PBS/NOVA & National Geographic. Event occurs at 22:33. Retrieved 2011-06-25. Narrator: The size of the slag heaps indicates that over its lifetime the site produced 5000 tons of copper. Enough to supply copper to the entire region. Isotope analysis of copper objects from sites all over ancient israel has proved that they came from the Wadi Faynan area.
    Amihai Mazar: Right now in Israel metallurgical study of copper objects that were found in contexts of ... late 11th century BC were proven to originate from Faynan.
    Narrator: Perhaps this copper even reached Jerusalem. Where Solomon built his temple.
    Thomas Levy: The bible tells us that the temple would require precious metals including tons of copper. And the closest source of copper for Jerusalem, it's about a three day ride from here, is this area of Faynan."
    (later @51:06) Amihai Mazar: I believe that if, one day, we should find the copper objects from the temple in Jerusalem, it will prove to come from this area.
  32. ^ Clayton, Peter and Price, Martin: The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World (Routledge, 1988), pp. 162–63.

General references

Further reading

21st Century resources
Post-1945 resources
Pre-1945 resources
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