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Glioma

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Glioma
SpecialtyOncology, neurology, neurosurgery Edit this on Wikidata
Frequency0.0343%

A glioma is a type of tumor that starts in the brain or spine. It is called a glioma because it arises from glial cells. The most common site of gliomas is the brain.[1] Gliomas make up ~30% of all brain and central nervous system tumors and 80% of all malignant brain tumors.[2]

Classification

Gliomas are classified by cell type, by grade, and by location.

By type of cell

Gliomas are named according to the specific type of cell they share histological features with, but not necessarily originate from. The main types of gliomas are:

By grade

Gliomas are further categorized according to their grade, which is determined by pathologic evaluation of the tumor.

Low-grade brain glioma in a 28 year-old male. (Taken on 10 July 2007)
  • Low-grade gliomas [WHO grade II] are well-differentiated (not anaplastic); these are benign and portend a better prognosis for the patient.
  • High-grade [WHO grade III-IV] gliomas are undifferentiated or anaplastic; these are malignant and carry a worse prognosis.

Of numerous grading systems in use, the most common is the World Health Organization (WHO) grading system for astrocytoma, under which tumors are graded from I (least advanced disease — best prognosis) to IV (most advanced disease — worst prognosis).

By location

Gliomas can be classified according to whether they are above or below a membrane in the brain called the tentorium. The tentorium separates the cerebrum (above) from the cerebellum (below).

  • supratentorial: above the tentorium, in the cerebrum, mostly found in adults (70%).
  • infratentorial: below the tentorium, in the cerebellum, mostly found in children (70%).
  • pontine: located in the pons of the brainstem. The brainstem has three parts (pons, midbrain and medulla); the pons controls critical functions such as breathing, making surgery on these extremely dangerous.

Signs and symptoms

Symptoms of gliomas depend on which part of the central nervous system is affected. A brain glioma can cause headaches, nausea and vomiting, seizures, and cranial nerve disorders as a result of increased intracranial pressure. A glioma of the optic nerve can cause visual loss. Spinal cord gliomas can cause pain, weakness, or numbness in the extremities. Gliomas do not metastasize by the bloodstream, but they can spread via the cerebrospinal fluid and cause "drop metastases" to the spinal cord.

A child who has a subacute disorder of the central nervous system that produces cranial nerve abnormalities (especially of cranial nerve VII and the lower bulbar nerves), long-tract signs, unsteady gait secondary to spasticity, and some behavioral changes is most likely to have a pontine glioma.[3]

Causes

The exact causes of gliomas are not known. Hereditary genetic disorders such as neurofibromatoses (type 1 and type 2) and tuberous sclerosis complex are known to predispose to their development.[4]

Gliomas have been correlated to the electromagnetic radiation from cell phones, and a link between the cancer and cell phone usage is considered plausible, though there is no conclusive evidence.[5] Most glioblastomas are infected with cytomegalovirus, however the significance of this is not known.[6][7]

Pathophysiology

High-grade gliomas are highly-vascular tumors and have a tendency to infiltrate. They have extensive areas of necrosis and hypoxia. Often tumor growth causes a breakdown of the blood–brain barrier in the vicinity of the tumor. As a rule, high-grade gliomas almost always grow back even after complete surgical excision, and so are commonly called recurrent cancer of the brain.

On the other hand, low-grade gliomas grow slowly, often over many years, and can be followed without treatment unless they grow and cause symptoms.

Several acquired (not inherited) genetic mutations have been found in gliomas. Tumor suppressor protein 53 (p53) is an early mutation. p53 is the "guardian of the genome," which, during DNA and cell duplication, makes sure that the DNA is copied correctly and destroys the cell (apoptosis) if the DNA is mutated and can't be fixed. When p53 itself is mutated, other mutations can survive. Phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN), another protein that also helps destroy cells with dangerous mutations, is itself lost or mutated. Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), a growth factor that normally stimulates cells to divide, is amplified and stimulates cells to divide too much. Together, these mutations lead to cells dividing uncontrollably, a hallmark of cancer. Recently, mutations in IDH1 and IDH2 were found to be part of the mechanism and associated with a more favorable prognosis.[8] The IDH1 and IDH2 genes are significant because they are involved in the citric acid cycle in mitochondria. Mitochondria are involved in apoptosis. Furthermore, the altered glycolysis metabolism in some cancer cells leads to low oxygen (hypoxia). The normal response to hypoxia is to stimulate the growth of new blood vessels (angiogenesis). So these two genes may contribute to both the lack of apoptosis and vascularization of gliomas.

Prognosis

Gliomas are rarely curable. The prognosis for patients with high-grade gliomas is generally poor, and is especially so for older patients. Of 10,000 Americans diagnosed each year with malignant gliomas, about half are alive 1 year after diagnosis, and 25% after two years. Those with anaplastic astrocytoma survive about three years. Glioblastoma multiforme has a worse prognosis with less than a 12-month average survival after diagnosis, though this has extended to 14 months with more recent treatments .[9]

Low Grade Glioma

For low-grade tumors, the prognosis is somewhat more optimistic. Patients diagnosed with a low-grade glioma are 17 times as likely to die as matched patients in the general population.[10] The age-standardized 10-year relative survival rate was 47%.[10] One study reported that low-grade oligodendroglioma patients have a median survival of 11.6 years;[11] another reported a median survival of 16.7 years.[12]

High Grade Glioma

This group comprises anaplastic astrocytomas and glioblastoma multiforme.

Treatment

Treatment for brain gliomas depends on the location, the cell type and the grade of malignancy. Often, treatment is a combined approach, using surgery, radiation therapy, and chemotherapy. The radiation therapy is in the form of external beam radiation or the stereotactic approach using radiosurgery. Spinal cord tumors can be treated by surgery and radiation. Temozolomide is a chemotherapeutic drug that is able to cross the blood–brain barrier effectively and is currently being used in therapy for high-grade tumors.

Refractory disease

For recurrent high-grade glioblastoma, recent studies have taken advantage of angiogenic blockers such as bevacizumab in combination with conventional chemotherapy, with encouraging results.[13]

Relative effectiveness

A 2007 meta-analysis compared surgical resection and biopsy as the initial surgical management option. Results show that there is insufficient evidence to make a reliable decision.[14] For high-grade gliomas, a 2003 meta-analysis compared radiotherapy with radiotherapy and chemotherapy. It showed a small but clear improvement from using chemotherapy with radiotherapy.[15] For Glioblastoma Multiforme, a 2008 meta-analysis showed that Temozolomide is an effective treatment for "prolonging survival and delaying progression as part of primary therapy without impacting on QoL and with a low incidence of early adverse events."[16]

Research

Diet

Metabolic control of brain cancer through diet (regular or low carbohydrate or ketogenic) has been done with mice, demonstrating a 86% reduction in the rate of tumour growth when dietary caloric intake was reduced by 40%.[17]

Oncolytic virus treatments

The use of oncolytic viruses or gene therapy using prodrug converting retroviruses and adenoviruses is being studied for the treatment of gliomas.[18][19][20]

THC

Cannabinoids "may represent a new class of anticancer drugs that retard cancer growth, inhibit angiogenesis and the metastic spreading of cancer cells."[21] Pilot studies have been completed.[22][23] Recent evidence indicates that CB2 receptors are involved in immune defences against protein attacks on cells.[24]

Oncophage, or vitespen

The European orphan status vaccine and Russian approved vaccine/drug Oncophage, now renamed "vitespen", are currently used at the Brain Tumor Research Center at the University of California, San Francisco, which has begun enrolling patients into a Phase 2 clinical trials in combination with the standard of care — radiation therapy plus temozolomide — for newly diagnosed glioma patients. The overall goals of the investigator-sponsored study are to evaluate median overall survival, progression-free survival and immunologic response to vaccine treatment.[25][26] The FDA has now set a provision allowing patients to receive such care using experimental drugs such as Oncophage to those in need with no other resource for care in the United States.

"To date, improvements in overall survival for newly diagnosed glioma patients have been negligible", said the principal investigator, Andrew T. Parsa. "The rationale for moving Oncophage into this patient population and combining it with radiation and Temodar was underscored by the encouraging results from the ongoing Phase 2 study in recurrent glioma, a more challenging patient population where the results showed overall survival increasing to approximately 10.5 months" from a median of 6.5 months after surgery.

The autologous tumour derived heat shock protein–peptide complex 96 (HSPPC-96) vaccine called "vitespen" has shown a promising safety profile in trials to date. In phase III clinical trials against melanoma and kidney cancer, it was shown to have very low toxicity.[27]

Alternating electrical field

Tumor Treating Fields show some promise in treating GBM.[28]

Others

A 2005, review found Ukrain may have the potential to be a cancer treatment, however the research is preliminary.[29]

5-aminolevulinic acid, a drug that makes certain cells, including gliomas, fluorescent, has been used to make surgical removal of gliomas more effective by making it easier to identify and remove them during surgery.[30]

References

  1. ^ Mamelak AN, Jacoby DB (2007). "Targeted delivery of antitumoral therapy to glioma and other malignancies with synthetic chlorotoxin (TM-601)". Expert Opin Drug Deliv. 4 (2): 175–86. doi:10.1517/17425247.4.2.175. PMID 17335414. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  2. ^ Goodenberger ML, Jenkins RB (2012) Genetics of adult glioma. Cancer Genet pii: S2210-7762(12)00260-8. doi: 10.1016/j.cancergen.2012.10.009
  3. ^ PRETEST pediatrics pg 224
  4. ^ Reuss, D (2009). "Hereditary tumor syndromes and gliomas". Recent results in cancer research. Fortschritte der Krebsforschung. Progres dans les recherches sur le cancer. 171: 83–102. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-31206-2_5. PMID 19322539. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  5. ^ http://www.iarc.fr/en/media-centre/pr/2011/pdfs/pr208_E.pdf
  6. ^ Michaelis, M (2011 Feb). "Oncomodulation by human cytomegalovirus: novel clinical findings open new roads". Medical microbiology and immunology. 200 (1): 1–5. doi:10.1007/s00430-010-0177-7. PMID 20967552. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  7. ^ Barami, K (2010 Jul). "Oncomodulatory mechanisms of human cytomegalovirus in gliomas". Journal of Clinical Neuroscience. 17 (7): 819–23. doi:10.1016/j.jocn.2009.10.040. PMID 20427188. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  8. ^ Yan H, Parsons DW, Jin G, McLendon R, Rasheed BA, Yuan W, Kos I, Batinic-Haberle I, Jones S, Riggins GJ, Friedman H, Friedman A, Reardon D, Herndon J, Kinzler KW, Velculescu VE, Vogelstein B, Bigner DD (19 Feb 2009). "IDH1 and IDH2 mutations in gliomas". N Engl J Med. 360 (8): 765–73. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa0808710. PMC 2820383. PMID 19228619.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  9. ^ Rob Stein (May 20, 2008). "Malignant Gliomas Affect About 10,000 Americans Annually". Washington Post.
  10. ^ a b Smoll N, Gautschi OP, Schatlo B, Schaller K, Weber DC (July 06, 2012). "Relative Survival of Patients with Supratentorial Low Grade Gliomas". Neuro-Oncology. {{cite web}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help); Missing or empty |url= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Cite error: The named reference "lgg" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  11. ^ Ohgaki H, Kleihues P (2005). "Population-based studies on incidence, survival rates, and genetic alterations in astrocytic and oligodendroglial gliomas". J Neuropathol Exp Neurol. 64 (6): 479–89. PMID 15977639. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  12. ^ http://www.neurology.org/cgi/content/abstract/54/7/1442
  13. ^ Wong ET, Brem S (2007). "Taming glioblastoma: targeting angiogenesis". J. Clin. Oncol. 25 (30): 4705–6. doi:10.1200/JCO.2007.13.1037. PMID 17947716.
  14. ^ Hart MG, Grant R, Metcalfe SE (2000). Hart, Michael G (ed.). "Biopsy versus resection for high grade glioma". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (2): CD002034. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD002034. PMID 10796847.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  15. ^ Stewart L, Burdett S; Glioma Meta-analysis Trialists Group (GMT) (2002). Stewart, Lesley (ed.). "Chemotherapy for high-grade glioma". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (3): CD003913. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003913. PMID 12519620.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  16. ^ Hart MG, Grant R, Garside R, Rogers G, Somerville M, Stein K (2008-10-08). Hart, Michael G (ed.). "Temozolomide for high grade glioma". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (4): CD007415. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD007415. PMID 18843749.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  17. ^ Seyfried, TN; Sanderson,TM; El-Abbadai, MM; McGowan, R; and Mukherjee, P (2003). "Role of glucose and ketone bodies in the metabolic control of experimental brain cancer". British Journal of Cancer (2003). 89: 1375–1382. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  18. ^ Rainov N, Ren H (2003). "Gene therapy for human malignant brain tumors". Cancer journal. 9 (3): 180–8. doi:10.1097/00130404-200305000-00006. PMID 12952303.
  19. ^ Tyler MA, Sonabend AM, Ulasov IV, Lesniak MS (2008). "Vector therapies for malignant glioma: shifting the clinical paradigm". Expert Opin Drug Deliv. 5 (4): 445–58. doi:10.1517/17425247.5.4.445. PMID 18426385. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  20. ^ Fu YJ, Du J, Yang RJ, Yin LT, Liang AH (2010). "Potential adenovirus-mediated gene therapy of glioma cancer". Biotechnol. Lett. 32 (1): 11–8. doi:10.1007/s10529-009-0132-0. PMID 19784809. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  21. ^ Natalya, Kogan. "Cannabinoids and cancer". Mini-Reviews in Medicinal Chemistry. 5 (10): 941–952. doi:10.2174/138955705774329555. PMID 16250836. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  22. ^ Parolaro, D (2008 Jan). "Cannabinoids as potential new therapy for the treatment of gliomas". Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics. 8 (1): 37–49. doi:10.1586/14737175.8.1.37. PMID 18088200. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  23. ^ Guindon J, Hohmann AG (2011 Aug). "The endocannabinoid system and cancer: therapeutic implication". Br J Pharmacol. 163 (7): 1447–63. doi:10.1111/j.1476-5381.2011.01327.x.. PMC 3165955. PMID 21410463. {{cite journal}}: Check |doi= value (help); Check date values in: |date= (help)
  24. ^ Pacher P, Mechoulam R (2011 Apr). "Is lipid signaling through cannabinoid 2 receptors part of a protective system?". Prog Lipid Res. 50 (2): 193–211. PMC 3062638. PMID 21295074. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  25. ^ www.antigenics.com
  26. ^ Clinical trial number NCT00293423 for "GP96 Heat Shock Protein-Peptide Complex Vaccine in Treating Patients With Recurrent or Progressive Glioma" at ClinicalTrials.gov
  27. ^ Tosti G, di Pietro A, Ferrucci PF, Testori A (2009 Nov). "HSPPC-96 vaccine in metastatic melanoma patients: from the state of the art to a possible future". Expert Rev Vaccines. 8 (11): 1513–26. doi:10.1586/erv.09.108. PMID 19863242. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  28. ^ Vymazal J.; et al. "Long-term survival of patients suffering from glioblastoma multiforme treated with tumor-treating fields". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)
  29. ^ Ernst E, Schmidt K (2005-07-01). "Ukrain — a new cancer cure? A systematic review of randomised clinical trials". BMC Cancer. 5: 69. doi:10.1186/1471-2407-5-69. PMC 1180428. PMID 15992405.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  30. ^ Stummer, W; Pichlmeier, U; Meinel, T; Wiestler, OD; Zanella, F; Reulen, HJ; Ala-Glioma Study, Group (2006). "Fluorescence-guided surgery with 5-aminolevulinic acid for resection of malignant glioma: a randomised controlled multicentre phase III trial". Lancet Oncology. 7 (5): 392–401. doi:10.1016/S1470-2045(06)70665-9. PMID 16648043. {{cite journal}}: |first7= has generic name (help)
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