Sparassodonta

Sparassodonta Temporal range:
Thylacosmilus
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Mammalia
Infraclass:	Metatheria
Order:	†Sparassodonta Ameghino, 1894
Families
†Hathliacynidae †Borhyaenidae †Proborhyaenidae †Thylacosmilidae

Sparassodonta is an extinct order of carnivorous metatherian mammals native to South America. They were once considered to be true marsupials, but are now thought to be a sister taxon to them. A number of these mammalian predators closely resemble placental predators that evolved separately on other continents, and are cited frequently as examples of convergent evolution. They were first described by Florentino Ameghino, from fossils found in the Santa Cruz beds of Patagonia. Sparassodonts were present throughout South America's long period of "splendid isolation" during the Cenozoic; during this time they shared the niches for large warm-blooded predators with the flightless terror birds. Previously, it was thought that these mammals died out in the face of competition from "more competitive" placental carnivorans during the Pliocene Great American Interchange, but more recent research has showed that sparassodonts died out long before eutherian carnivores arrived in South America (aside from procyonids).

Features

Although members of the order Sparassodonta showed many similarities with placental carnivores, they were not closely related and are a very good example of convergent evolution. For example, sparassodonts' molars were very similar to the sharp teeth of placental carnivores. The canines were also lengthened, and in some cases resemble those of saber-toothed cats. Sparassodonts spanned a wide range of body sizes, from 2.2 pound (1 kg) weasel or civet-like forms to Thylacosmilus, which was the size of a leopard. Along with the Australian thylacoleonids, sparassodonts include some of the largest metatherian carnvores.

The dental formula of most sparassodonts is 4.1.3.43.1.3.4, with the exception of borhyaenids, which have lost an upper incisor, proborhyaenids (except for Callistoe), which have lost a lower incisor, and thylacosmilids, which have lost one premolar, two lower incisors, and at least two upper incisors. Some specimens of Borhyaena and Arctodictis are also missing the last upper molar, showing that the presence of this tooth was variable in these species. Sparassodonts had a typical metatherian mode of dental replacement, replacing only the upper and lower third premolar throughout their lifetime.

The early history of the Sparassodonta is poorly known, as most Paleocene and Eocene members of this group are only known from isolated teeth and fragmentary jaws. However, one species, the middle Eocene Callistoe vincei, is known from a nearly complete, articulated skeleton. As Callistoe belongs to one of the most specialized groups of sparassodonts, this indicates that the other major groups (e.g. borhyaenids, hathliacynids, etc.) must have also arisen by this time. Originally, the early Paleocene metatherian Mayulestes was considered to be the earliest known member of the Sparassodonta, but phylogenetic analyses suggest that this species represents an independent radiation of carnivorous metatherians more closely related to Pucadelphys. As of this writing, the earliest known true sparassodonts are either Allqokirus australis, a species from the same site as Mayulestes which may also turn out to not be a sparassodont, and an isolated astragalus from the earliest Paleocene site of Punta Peligro, Argentina. Marshall (1990) considered the Cretaceous stagodontids to also be a member of the Sparassodonta, but this was criticized by later authors.

Sparassodonts can be divided into six major groups; basal sparassodonts (?earliest Paleocene-late Miocene), species that cannot be easily assigned to any of the other sparassodont groups and whose teeth often exhibit adaptations for omnivory; hathliacynids (late Oligocene-early Pliocene/late Pliocene), which range from a marten to a thylacine in size, and have long, fox-like snouts and teeth strongly adapted for carnivory); basal borhyaenoids (middle Eocene-late Miocene), borhyaenoids that cannot be easily classified into the families Borhyaenidae, Thylacosmilidae, or Proborhyaenidae and vary in size and shape; borhyaenids (early-late Miocene), the sparassodont group most specialized for running, but not as much as living carnivorans or even thylacines; proborhyaenids (middle Eocene-late Oligocene), robust, wolverine-like forms with ever-growing upper and lower canines; and thylacosmilids (early Miocene-late Pliocene), another terrestrially specialized group with ever-growing saber-like upper canines. With the exception of some basal sparassodonts, all members of this group were hypercarnivorous. Based on studies of the postcranium, it appears as though most sparassodonts were scansorial, but terrestrial adaptations evolved in "Lycopsis" longirostrus, borhyaenids, proborhyaenids, and thylacosmilids.

After the middle Miocene, sparassodonts began to slowly decline in diversity. Basal borhyaenoids are last known from the early late Miocene (Pseudolycopsis cabrerai and "Lycopsis" viverensis), and after this time were at least partially replaced by large-bodied basal sparassodonts such as Stylocynus. It has been suggested that this shift in dominance was due to the more omnivorous habits of basal sparassodonts, which may have been better able to exploit the more seasonal climates of South America during the late Neogene. Borhyaenids are last known from the latest Miocene, though only fragmentary remains of this group are known from this period. Later remains assigned to this group have since been reidentified as thylacosmilids or procyonids. By the Pliocene, only two families of sparassodonts remained in South America, the Hathliacynidae and the Thylacosmilidae. Pliocene hathliacynid remains are rare, and it is possible that these animals may have competed with the large carnivorous didelphids such as Lutreolina that appeared around this time. Hathliacynids are last definitively known from the early Pliocene, though it has been suggested that the genus Borhyaenidium may have survived into the late Pliocene. The thylacosmilids, on the other hand, were more successful and abundant, being some of the only large mammalian carnivores in South America during the Pliocene, and only died out at the end of the epoch. It is still not certain why the Sparassodonta declined in diversity and became extinct during the late Cenozoic, but it appears as though competition from eutherian carnivorans was not a factor, as the placental analogues of sparassodonts (dogs, weasels, and saber-toothed cats) did not enter South America until the middle Pleistocene, several million years after their sparassodont counterpart became extinct.

Classification

The taxonomic classification below follows the latest review of the group, that of Forasiepi, 2009. Although Mayulestes was originally described as a sparassodont, later phylogenetic analyses have shown that it most likely does not belong to this group. Similarly, while basal borhyaenoids such as Lycopsis and Prothylacynus were once thought to belong to a distinct family (Prothylacynidae), phylogenetic analyses have found that these animals do not represent a monophyletic group. The exact age of most Eocene species of sparassodonts is uncertain, given the lack of precise stratigraphic information associated with most specimens and the recent division of the Casamayoran SALMA into the Vacan and Barrancan SALMAs

• Order Sparassodonta

• • ?Genus Allqokirus
    • Allqokirus australis (earliest Paleocene, Tiupampan SALMA)
  • Genus Patene
    • Patene campbelli (late ?Eocene, Santa Rosa local fauna)
    • Patene coluapiensis (middle Eocene)
    • Patene simpsoni (late Paleocene/early Eocene, Itaboraian SALMA)
  • Genus Procladosictis
    • Procladosictis anomala (middle Eocene)
  • Genus Hondadelphys
    • Hondadelphys fieldsi (late middle Miocene, Laventan SALMA)
  • Genus Stylocynus
    • Stylocynus paranensis (late late Miocene, Huayquerian SALMA)
  • Genus Nemolestes
    • Nemolestes spalacotherinus
  • Genus Argyrolestes
  • Family Hathliacynidae
    • Genus Notogale
      • Notogale mitis (late Oligocene, Deseadan SALMA)
    • Genus Cladosictis
      • Cladosictis centralis (early Miocene, Colhuehuapian SALMA)
      • Cladosictis patagonica (late early to earliest middle Miocene, Santacrucian-Friasian SALMA)
    • Genus Acyon
      • Acyon ?herrerae (early Miocene, Colhuehuapian SALMA)
      • Acyon myctoderos (late middle Miocene, Laventan SALMA)
      • Acyon tricuspidatus (late early Miocene, Santacrucian SALMA)
    • Genus Sipalocyon
      • Sipalocyon externus (early Miocene, Colhuehuapian SALMA)
      • Sipalocyon gracilis (late early Miocene, Santacrucian SALMA)
      • Sipalocyon "obusta" (late early Miocene, Santacrucian SALMA)
    • Genus Pseudonotictis
      • Pseudonotictis chubutensis (early middle Miocene, Colloncuran SALMA)
      • Pseudonotictis pusillus (late early Miocene, Santacrucian SALMA)
    • Genus Sallacyon
      • Sallacyon hoffstetteri (late Oligocene, Deseadan SALMA)
    • Genus Perathereutes
      • Perathereutes pungens (late early Miocene, Santacrucian SALMA)
    • Genus Chasicostylus
      • Chasicostylus castroi (early late Miocene, Chasicoan SALMA)
    • Genus Notictis
      • Notictis ortizi (late late Miocene, Huayquerian SALMA)
    • Genus Notocynus
      • Notocynus hermosicus (early Pliocene, Montehermosan SALMA)
    • Genus Borhyaenidium
      • Borhyaenidium altiplanicus (late late Miocene, Huayquerian SALMA)
      • Borhyaenidium riggsi (unknown, either early or late Pliocene, Montehermosan or Chapadmalalan SALMA)
      • Borhyaenidium musteloides (late late Miocene, Huayquerian SALMA)
  • Superfamily Borhyaenoidea
    • Genus Angelocabrerus
      • Angelocabrerus daptes (middle Eocene)
    • Genus Pseudothylacynus
      • Pseudothylacynus rectus (early Miocene, Colhuehuapian SALMA)
    • Genus Prothylacynus
      • Prothylacynus patagonicus (late early to earliest middle Miocene, Santacrucian-Friasian SALMA)
    • Genus Dukecynus
      • Dukecynus magnus (late middle Miocene, Laventan SALMA)
    • Genus Lycopsis
      • "Lycopsis" longirostrus (late middle Miocene, Laventan SALMA)
      • Lycopsis torresi (early Miocene, Colhuehuapian SALMA)
      • "Lycopsis" viverensis (early late Miocene, Chasicoan SALMA)
    • Genus Pseudolycopsis
      • Pseudolycopsis cabrerai (early late Miocene, Chasicoan SALMA)
    • Genus Pharsophorus
      • Pharsophorus "antiquus" (late Oligocene, Deseadan SALMA)
      • Pharsophorus lacerans (middle to late Oligocene, La Cantera Local Fauna to Deseadan SALMA)
      • Pharsophorus tenax (late Oligocene, Deseadan SALMA)
    • Genus Plesiofelis
      • Plesiofelis schlosseri (late Eocene, Mustersan SALMA)
    • Family Borhyaenidae
      • Genus Acrocyon
        • Acrocyon riggsi (early Miocene, Colhuehuapian SALMA)
        • Acrocyon sectorius (late early Miocene, Santacrucian SALMA)
      • Genus Arctodictis
        • Arctodictis munizi (late early Miocene, Santacrucian SALMA)
        • Arctodictis sinclairi (early Miocene, Colhuehuapian SALMA)
      • Genus Borhyaena
        • Borhyaena macrodonta (early Miocene, Colhuehuapian SALMA)
        • Borhyaena tuberata (late early Miocene, Santacrucian SALMA)
      • ?Genus Eutemnodus
    • Family Proborhyaenidae
      • Genus Arminiheringia
      • Genus Callistoe
        • Callistoe vincei (middle Eocene, Vacan-Barrancan SALMA)
      • Genus Paraborhyaena
        • Paraborhyaena boliviana (late Oligocene, Deseadan SALMA)
      • Genus Proborhyaena
        • Proborhyaena gigantea (late Oligocene, Deseadan SALMA)
    • Family Thylacosmilidae
      • Genus Anachlysictis
        • Anachlysictis gracilis (late middle Miocene, Laventan SALMA)
      • Genus Patagosmilus
        • Patagosmilus goini (early middle Miocene, Colloncuran SALMA)
      • Genus Thylacosmilus
        • Thylacosmilus atrox (late late Miocene to late Pliocene, Huayquerian-Chapadmalalan SALMA)