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Foreign electoral interventions are attempts by governments, covertly or overtly, to influence elections in another country. There are many ways that nations have accomplished regime change abroad, and electoral intervention is only one of those methods.

Theoretical and empirical research on foreign electoral intervention is weak overall; however, a number of such studies have been conducted.[1] One study indicates that the United States and Russia (along with the former Soviet Union) "intervened in 117 elections around the world from 1946 to 2000 — an average of once in every nine competitive elections".[2][3][4]

Academic studies

A 2016 study by Dov Levin found that, among 938 global elections examined,[a] the United States and Russia[b] combined had involved themselves in about one out of nine (117), with the majority of those (68%) being through covert, rather than overt, actions. The same study found that "on average, an electoral intervention in favor of one side contesting the election will increase its vote share by about 3 percent," an effect large enough to have potentially changed the results in seven out of 14 U.S. presidential elections occurring after 1960.[2][c][d] According to the study, the U.S. intervened in 81 foreign elections between 1946 and 2000, while the Soviet Union or Russia intervened in 36.[2]

In a 2012 study, Corstange and Marinov theorized that there are two types of foreign intervention:[5] partisan intervention, where the foreign power takes a stance on its support for one side, and process intervention, where the foreign power seeks "to support the rules of democratic contestation, irrespective of who wins". Their results from 1,703 participants found that partisan interventions had a polarizing effect on political and foreign relations views, with the side favored by the external power more likely to favor improvements in relations between the two, and having the converse effect for those opposed by the power.

Also in 2012, Shulman and Bloom theorized a number of distinct factors affecting the results of foreign interference:[1]

  • Agents of interference: each with a descending effect on resentment caused by their intervention, these being nations, international organizations, non-governmental organizations, and finally individuals.
  • Partisanship of interference: whether foreign actors intervene to affect institutions and process broadly, or intervene primarily to favor one side in a contest
  • Salience of interference: consisting of two elements. First, "how obvious and well-known is the interference", and second, "how clear and understandable is the intervention?"

Additionally, they theorized that national similarities between the foreign and domestic powers would decrease resentment, and may even render the interference welcome. In cases where national autonomy are of primary concern to the electorate, they predicted a diminished effect of the similarity or dissimilarity of the two powers on resentment. Conversely, they predicted that in cases where national identity was a primary concern, the importance of similarity or dissimilarity would have a greater impact.

Bolivian election (U.S., 2002)

Main article: Bolivian general election, 2002

In the Bolivian elections of 2002, the U.S., which had been financing the eradication of coca farms, instructed Ambassador Manuel Rocha to warn Bolivians against voting for socialist candidate Evo Morales, stating that doing so could "jeopardize American assistance and investment."[8] The move largely backfired, increasing support for Morales, who finished second in the election.[9]

Chilean elections

Chilean workers marching in support of Allende in 1964.
Further information: United States intervention in Chile

1970 election (U.S.)

Main article: Chilean presidential election, 1970

According to information released as part of the findings of the Church Committee, the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency supported the kidnapping of the Chilean Army Commander-in-Chief General René Schneider in an attempt to prevent the congressional confirmation of Salvador Allende. The attempt failed and Schneider was shot in the process. He died three days later from his wounds.[10] Thereafter, the U.S. continued a vigorous overt and covert campaign to undermine Allende's Presidency, which may have created the conditions for Allende's overthrow in a violent coup, although the U.S. was not directly implicated in the coup.[11] American official Henry Kissinger was quoted by Newsweek in 1974 saying this about Chile: "I don't see why we have to let a country go communist due to the irresponsibility of its own people".[12]

1964 election (U.S., U.S.S.R)

Main article: Chilean presidential election, 1964

Between 1960 and 1969, the Soviet government funded the communist party of Chile at a rate of between $50,000 and $400,000 annually.[7] In the 1964 Chilean elections the U.S. Government supplied $2.6 million in funding for candidate Eduardo Frei Montalva, whose opponent, Salvador Allende was a prominent Marxist, as well as additional funding with the intention of harming Allende's reputation.[13]: 38–9  As Gustafson phrased the situation:

It was clear the Soviet Union was operating in Chile to ensure Marxist success, and from the contemporary American point of view, the United States was required to thwart this enemy influence: Soviet money and influence were clearly going into Chile to undermine its democracy, so U.S. funding would have to go into Chile to frustrate that pernicious influence.[7]

Guyanese election (U.K., 1953)

Main article: British Guiana general election, 1953

In the 1953 election in the then British Guiana, the leftist People's Progressive Party won a large majority. In response, the United Kingdom suspended the Guyanese constitution on 9 October, and ruled the country for the next three years under emergency powers.[14]

Italian election (U.S., U.S.S.R., and Vatican’s role, 1948)

Main article: Italian general election, 1948 § Superpower influence

In the 1948 Italian elections, described as an "apocalyptic test of strength between communism and democracy,"[15] the administration of Harry Truman, allied with the Roman Catholic Church, funneled millions of dollars in funding to the Christian Democracy party and other right-leaning socialist parties through the War Powers Act of 1941 in addition to supplying military advisers, in preparation for a potential civil war. At the advice of Walter Dowling, the U.S. also invited Prime Minister Alcide De Gasperi on an official visit and made a number of related economic concessions.[15][16]: 107–8 

Conversely, the Soviet Union funneled as much as $10 million monthly to the communists and leveraged its influence on Italian companies via contracts to support them.[17] However, many of their efforts were ad hoc in comparison, and the Christian Democrats eventually won in a landslide.[16]: 108–9 

Japanese elections (U.S., U.S.S.R., 1950-60s)

The Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) of Japan received secret American funds during the 1950s and 1960s.[3] According to former U.S. Ambassador to Japan Douglas MacArthur II, "the Socialists in Japan had their own secret funds from Moscow", and funding the LDP helped to "project American power".[18]

Korean election (U.N., U.S.S.R., 1948)

Main article: South Korean Constitutional Assembly election, 1948

The 1948 Korean elections were overseen primarily by the United Nations Temporary Commission on Korea, or UNTCOK. The United States planned to hold separate elections in the south of the peninsula, a plan which was opposed by Australia, Canada and Syria as members of the commission.[19] According to Gordenker, the commission acted:

in such a way as to affect the controlling political decisions regarding elections in Korea. Moreover, UNTCOK deliberately and directly took a hand in the conduct of the 1948 election.[20]

Conversely the Soviet Union forbade such elections in the north of the peninsula all together.[21] Faced with this, UNTCOK eventually recommended the election take place only in the south, but that the results would be binding on all of Korea.[21]

Palestinian election (U.S., Israel, 2006)

See also: Palestinian legislative election, 2006

During the 2006 Palestinian elections, Israel hoped that Fatah would prevail over Hamas, the latter being a Sunni-Islamic fundamentalist organization. Israeli Prime Minister Ariel Sharon wanted to halt the elections if Hamas ran candidates. However, U.S. President George W. Bush objected to such election interference, and Hamas won, despite millions of clandestine dollars flowing from the Bush administration to Fatah during the closing weeks of the campaign.[22] Then-Senator Hillary Clinton commented at the time: "we should have made sure that we did something to determine who was going to win."[23]

Philippines election (U.S., 1953)

The United States Government, including the Central Intelligence Agency, had a strong influence on the 1953 elections, and candidates in the election fiercely competed with each other for U.S. support.[24] CIA agent Edward Lansdale purportedly ran the successful 1953 presidential campaign of Ramon Magsaysay.[3]

Russian election (U.S., 1996)

The first Russian president Boris Yeltsin won his second term in 1996 Presidential elections thanks to the extensive assistance provided by the team of media and PR experts from the US.[25] According to the cover story in the Time magazine,[26] these were Steven Moore, Joe Shumate, Felix Braynin, George Gorton and Richard Dresner, who worked in Russia four months and received $250 thousand, plus payment of all costs and unlimited budget to conduct surveys and other activities. Simultaneously the US administration ensured a US$10.2 billion IMF loan to Russia[27] as it was drowning in the economic and social disaster, to keep the national economy and pro-Western liberal government afloat.[28] The loan funds have been fraudulently misused by Yeltsin's inner circle, and the IMF has knowingly turned a blind eye to these facts.[29] Although the aggressive pro-Yeltsin campaign boosted his approval rate from initial 6%[30] to 35% that he got during the first round of elections, and later made him win the second round against the left-wing competitor with 54% to 40%, there were wide speculations about the rigged nature of the official results.[31]

Ukrainian elections

2014 election (Russia)

Pro-Russian hackers launched a series of cyberattacks over several days to disrupt the May 2014 Ukrainian presidential election, releasing hacked emails, attempting to alter vote tallies, and delaying the final result with distributed denial-of-service attacks.[32][33] Malware that would have displayed a graphic declaring far-right candidate Dmytro Yarosh the electoral winner was removed from Ukraine's Central Election Commission less than an hour before polls closed. Despite this, Channel One Russia "reported that Mr. Yarosh had won and broadcast the fake graphic, citing the election commission's website, even though it had never appeared there."[32][34] According to Peter Ordeshook: "These faked results were geared for a specific audience in order to feed the Russian narrative that has claimed from the start that ultra-nationalists and Nazis were behind the revolution in Ukraine."[32]

2004 election (Russia)

Round table talks with Ukrainian and foreign representatives during the Orange Revolution on 1 December in Kiev.
Main article: Orange Revolution

The Russian government publicly attempted to influence the 2004 Ukrainian presidential election.[1] Russian President Vladimir Putin gave public support for candidate Viktor Yanukovych and made public visits to Ukraine on his behalf. According to Kempe and Solonenko, "The overall interest of the Russian elite was to keep Ukraine as a reliable neighbor and partner." This was accomplished by channeling Russian funding and expertise directly into the campaign of Yanukovych or the government of Ukraine, in an effort described as "nakedly partisan".[1] Meanwhile, the U.S., Canada, Poland and Slovakia gave money to build political parties in Ukraine.[1]

United States elections

2016

2016 election (Russia)

Main article: Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections

In October 2016, the U.S. government accused Russia of interfering in the 2016 United States elections through the hacking of the Democratic National Committee (DNC) and leaking its documents to WikiLeaks, which then leaked them to the media.[35][36] Russia said it had no involvement.[37]

In January 2017, following a British intelligence tip-off,[38][39] the U.S. intelligence community expressed "high confidence" that Russian President Vladimir Putin ordered an influence campaign designed to interfere in the 2016 U.S. elections, undermine confidence in the U.S. democratic process, harm Secretary Hillary Clinton's chances, and help Donald Trump win.[40]

In response, on 29 December 2016, President Barack Obama expelled 35 Russian diplomats and broadened sanctions on Russian entities and individuals.[41]

2016 election (Ukraine)

According to a January 2017 investigation by Politico, the National Anti-Corruption Bureau of Ukraine and Ukrainian legislator Serhiy Leshchenko sought the August 2016 resignation of Paul Manafort as Donald Trump's campaign manager by publicizing unverified ledgers purporting to reveal that Manafort had received $12.7 million in illicit payments from Ukraine's pro-Russia Party of Regions. That interference occurred amid a broader influence campaign orchestrated by several high-ranking Ukrainian officials (particularly Ambassador of Ukraine to the United States Valeriy Chaly) to damage Trump's chances of winning the presidency.[42]

2012 election (Israel)

In 2012, Former Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Olmert claimed that Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu tried to undermine President Barack Obama in favor of Republican candidate Mitt Romney.[43] Former Prime Minister Ehud Barak said that the interference cost Israel aid.[44] Netanyahu has denied that.[45] The accusations included claims that Obama had deliberately snubbed Netanyahu, and another implied that an appearance in a television advertisement was designed by Netanyahu to give support to Romney.[46]

1996 election (China)

Main article: 1996 United States campaign finance controversy

In February 1997, officials from the Federal Bureau of Investigation announced they had uncovered evidence that the government of China had sought to make illegal foreign contributions to the Democratic National Committee.[47] Both the presidential administration and the Chinese government denied any wrongdoing.[48][49]

1984 election (U.S.S.R.)

When Ronald Reagan was running for reelection as president, the Soviet Union very much opposed his candidacy and took active measures against it.[50] Soviet intelligence reportedly attempted to infiltrate both the Republican National Committee and Democratic National Committee.[50]

1980 election (Iran)

Main articles: Iran hostage crisis and October Surprise conspiracy theory

Throughout the 1980 presidential election, negotiations were ongoing between the administration of Jimmy Carter and the government of Iran regarding 52 American citizens who had been taken hostage in November 1979.[51] Although it was recognized that negotiations were nearing a successful conclusion, the government of Iran delayed their release until after the election, potentially in retaliation for the decision of Carter to admit the deposed Iranian leader Mohammad Reza Pahlavi to the United States for cancer treatment.[51][52]

Opinions differ as to the intentional nature of the delay with regard to the outcome of the election. A ten-month investigation by the U.S. House of Representatives concluded that there was "virtually no credible evidence to support the accusations."[53] However, former Iranian President Abolhassan Banisadr claimed there was a deal between Reagan and Iran to delay the release in exchange for arms.[54]

1968 election (South Vietnam)

In the last months of the presidential election between Richard Nixon and Hubert Humphrey, President Lyndon Johnson announced an October surprise, intended to aid Humphrey, by declaring a cessation to bombing in the ongoing Vietnam War and a new round of peace negotiations. In response, Humphrey's popularity grew, eventually leading Nixon by three percentage points.

However, the South Vietnamese government, in consultation with the Nixon campaign, announced three days prior to the election that they would not be participating in the talks, and Nixon went on to win the vote by less than a percentage point.[51]

1960 election (U.S.S.R.)

Adlai Stevenson II had been the Democratic presidential nominee in 1952 and 1956, and the Soviets offered him propaganda support if he would run again for president in 1960, but Stevenson declined to run again.[55] Instead, Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev backed John F. Kennedy in that very close election, against Richard Nixon with whom Krushchev had clashed in the 1959 Kitchen Debate.[56] On July 1, 1960 a Soviet MiG-19 shot down an American RB-47H reconnaissance aircraft in the international airspace over the Barents Sea with four of the crew being killed and two captured by the Soviets: John R. McKone and Freeman B. Olmstead.[57] The Soviets held on to those two prisoners, in order to avoid giving Nixon (who was the incumbent Vice-President of the United States) an opportunity to boast about his ability to work with the Soviets, and the two Air Force officers were released just days after Kennedy's inauguration, on January 25, 1961. Krushchev later bragged that Kennedy acknowledged the Soviet help: "You're right. I admit you played a role in the election and cast your vote for me...."[56] Former Soviet ambassador to the United States Oleg Troyanovsky confirms Kennedy’s acknowledgment, but also quotes Kennedy doubting whether the Soviet support made a difference: "I don't think it affected the elections in any way."[56][58]

1940 election (Nazi Germany)

In October 1940, seeking to derail the reelection of incumbent U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt, the Nazis bribed a U.S. newspaper to publish a document that Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop hoped would convince American voters that Roosevelt was a "warmonger" and "criminal hypocrite". Leaking the captured Polish government document failed to have its intended effect, and Republican presidential nominee Wendell Willkie lost the election.[4][59]

1940 elections (U.K.)

From 1940 until "at least 1944," the British Secret Intelligence Service (SIS) orchestrated what Politico's Steve Usdin described as an influence campaign "without parallel in the history of relations between allied democracies" to undermine U.S. politicians opposed to American participation in World War II—much of which was documented in a declassified history by William Stephenson, the head of the SIS front organization British Security Co-ordination (BSC). Usdin stated that "SIS ... flooded American newspapers with fake stories, leaked the results of illegal electronic surveillance and deployed October surprises against political candidates."[60]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ These covered the period between 1946 and 2000, and included 148 countries, all with populations above 100,000.
  2. ^ including the former Soviet Union
  3. ^ This is, as the author points out, "Assuming, of course, a similar shift in the relevant swing states and, accordingly, the electoral college."[2]
  4. ^ Others, such as Corstange and Marinov,[5] Miller,[6] and Gustafson[7]: 49, 73–74  have argued that foreign electoral intervention is likely to have the opposite effect.

References

  1. ^ a b c d e Shulman, Stephen; Bloom, Stephen (2012). "The legitimacy of foreign intervention in elections: the Ukrainian response". Review of International Studies. 38 (2): 445–471. Retrieved 12 January 2017.
  2. ^ a b c d Levin, Dov H. (June 2016). "When the Great Power Gets a Vote: The Effects of Great Power Electoral Interventions on Election Results". International Studies Quarterly. 60 (2): 189–202.
  3. ^ a b c Tharoor, Ishaan. "The long history of the U.S. interfering with elections elsewhere", Washington Post (13 October 2016).
  4. ^ a b Levin, Dov H. "Sure, the U.S. and Russia often meddle in foreign elections. Does it matter?", The Washington Post (7 September 2016).
  5. ^ a b Corstange, Daniel; Marinov, Nikolay (21 February 2012). "Taking Sides in Other People's Elections: The Polarizing Effect of Foreign Intervention". American Journal of Political Science. 56 (3). Retrieved 11 January 2017.
  6. ^ Miller, James (1983). "Taking off the Gloves: The United States and the Italian Elections of 1948". Diplomatic History. 7 (1): 35–56. Retrieved 11 January 2017.
  7. ^ a b c Gustafson, Kristian (2007). Hostile Intent: U.S. Covert Operations in Chile, 1964-1974. Potomac Books, Inc. Retrieved 11 January 2017.
  8. ^ Forero, Juan (10 July 2002). "U.S. Aid Foe Is in Runoff For President Of Bolivia". The New York Times. Retrieved 12 January 2017.
  9. ^ Domínguez, Jorge. "Electoral Intervention in the Americas: Uneven and Unanticipated Results". NACLA. Retrieved 12 January 2017.
  10. ^ "CIA Reveals Covert Acts In Chile". CBS News. Retrieved 13 January 2017.
  11. ^ Rositzke, Harry (1977). The CIA's Secret Operations. Reader's Digest Press. pp. 192–195, 202. ISBN 0-88349-116-8.
  12. ^ Nutter, John. The CIA's Black Ops: Covert Action, Foreign Policy, and Democracy, p. 107 (Prometheus Books, 2000).
  13. ^ Johnson, Loch (2007). Strategic Intelligence. Greenwood Publishing Group. Retrieved 12 January 2017.
  14. ^ "MI5 files reveal details of 1953 coup that overthrew British Guiana's leaders". The Guardian. Retrieved 12 January 2017.
  15. ^ a b Miller, James (2007). "Taking Off the Gloves: The United States and the Italian Elections of 1948". Diplomatic History. 7 (1): 35–56. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  16. ^ a b Brogi, Alessandro (2011). Confronting America: The Cold War Between the United States and the Communists in France and Italy. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0-8078-3473-2.
  17. ^ "CNN Cold War Episode 3: Marshall Plan. Interview with F. Mark Wyatt, former CIA operative in Italy during the election". CNN. 1998–1999. Archived from the original on 31 August 2001. Retrieved 11 January 2017. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  18. ^ Weiner, Tim. "C.I.A. Spent Millions to Support Japanese Right in 50's and 60's", The New York Times (9 October 1994).
  19. ^ Cumings, Bruce (2005). Korea's Place in the Sun: A Modern History. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. pp. 211–212. ISBN 0-393-32702-7.
  20. ^ Gordenker, Leon (2012). The United Nations and the Peaceful Unification of Korea: The Politics of Field Operations, 1947–1950. Springer. p. 49. Retrieved 13 January 2017.
  21. ^ a b "Details/Information for Canadian Forces (CF) Operation United Nations Commission on Korea". National Defense and the Canadian Forces. Retrieved 13 January 2017.
  22. ^ Swansbrough, R. Test by Fire: The War Presidency of George W. Bush, p. 187 (Springer, 2008).
  23. ^ Lange, Jeva. "In unearthed 2006 audio, Clinton appears to suggest rigging the Palestine election", The Week (28 October 2016).
  24. ^ Cullather, Nick (1994). Illusions of influence: the political economy of United States-Philippines relations, 1942–1960. Stanford University Press. pp. 108–109. ISBN 978-0-8047-2280-3.
  25. ^ "The Guardian: Americans can spot election meddling because they've been doing it for years".
  26. ^ "TIME: Yanks to the rescue. The secret story of how American advisers helped Yeltsin win. (July 15, 1996)" (PDF).
  27. ^ "The New York Times: RUSSIA AND I.M.F. AGREE ON A LOAN FOR $10.2 BILLION".
  28. ^ "The New York Times: 10.2 Billion Loan To Russia Approved".
  29. ^ "The Guardian: IMF knew about Russian aid scam".
  30. ^ "LA Times: Americans Claim Role in Yeltsin Win".
  31. ^ "Rewriting Russian History: Did Boris Yeltsin Steal the 1996 Presidential Election?".
  32. ^ a b c Clayton, Mark (17 June 2014). "Ukraine election narrowly avoided 'wanton destruction' from hackers". The Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved 16 August 2017.
  33. ^ Watkins, Ali (14 August 2017). "Obama team was warned in 2014 about Russian interference". Politico. Retrieved 16 August 2017.
  34. ^ Kramer, Andrew E.; Higgins, Andrew (16 August 2017). "In Ukraine, a Malware Expert Who Could Blow the Whistle on Russian Hacking". The New York Times. Retrieved 16 August 2017.
  35. ^ Ackerman, Spencer; Thielman, Sam. "US officially accuses Russia of hacking DNC and interfering with election". The Guardian. Retrieved 7 October 2016.
  36. ^ CNN, Evan Perez and Theodore Schleifer. "US accuses Russia of trying to interfere with 2016 election". CNN. Retrieved 7 October 2016. {{cite web}}: |last= has generic name (help)
  37. ^ Ryan, Missy; Nakashima, Ellen; DeYoung, Karen (29 December 2016). "Obama administration announces measures to punish Russia for 2016 election interference". The Washington Post. Retrieved 30 December 2016.
  38. ^ "UK intelligence gave U.S. key tipoff about Russian hacking, report says". The Guardian. 9 January 2017.
  39. ^ "US concludes Vladimir Putin ordered campaign to influence US election 'after British intelligence tip-off'". The Daily Telegraph. 9 January 2017.
  40. ^ "Intelligence Report on Russian Hacking". The New York Times. 6 January 2017. p. 11. Retrieved 8 January 2017. We assess Russian President Vladimir Putin ordered an influence campaign in 2016 aimed at the U.S. presidential election. Russia's goals were to undermine public faith in the U.S. democratic process, denigrate Secretary Clinton, and harm her electability and potential presidency. We further assess Putin and the Russian Government developed a clear preference for President-elect Trump. We have high confidence in these judgments.
  41. ^ Lee, Carol E.; Sonne, Paul (30 December 2016). "U.S. Sanctions Russia Over Election Hacking; Moscow Threatens to Retaliate". The Wall Street Journal.
  42. ^ Vogel, Kenneth P.; Stern, David (11 January 2017). "Ukrainian efforts to sabotage Trump backfire". Politico. Retrieved 1 October 2017.
  43. ^ Ravid, Barak (7 November 2012). "Olmert: Netanyahu Interfered in U.S. Elections for Sheldon Adelson". Haaretz.
  44. ^ "Ex-PM Barak: Netanyahu's Interference in U.S. Politics Cost Israel a Better Aid Deal". Haaretz. 15 September 2016.
  45. ^ Ravid, Barak (31 July 2016). "Netanyahu: Israel Isn't Interfering in U.S. Election". Haaretz.
  46. ^ Sherwood, Harriet (20 September 2012). "Binyamin Netanyahu gambles on Mitt Romney victory". The Guardian.
  47. ^ Woodward, Bob; Duffy, Brian. "Chinese Embassy Role In Contributions Probed". The Washington Post. Retrieved 12 January 2017.
  48. ^ Harris, John (20 July 1997). "White House Unswayed By China Allegations". The Washington Post. Retrieved 12 January 2017.
  49. ^ "Campaign Finance Special Report". The Washington Post. Retrieved 12 January 2017.
  50. ^ a b Osnos, Evan et al. "Trump, Putin, and the New Cold War", The New Yorker (6 March 2017).
  51. ^ a b c Zeitz, Josh. "Foreign Governments Have Been Tampering With U.S. Elections for Decades". Politico Magazine. Retrieved 11 January 2017.
  52. ^ Daniels, Lee A. (24 October 1979). "Medical tests in Manhattan". The New York Times. p. A1.
  53. ^ Hamilton, Lee. "DIALOGUE: Last Word on the October Surprise?; Case Closed". The New York Times. Retrieved 12 January 2017.
  54. ^ "The October Surprise Scenario". Florida International University. Archived from the original on 18 February 2003. Retrieved 12 January 2017. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  55. ^ Daley, Jason. "How Adlai Stevenson Stopped Russian Interference in the 1960 Election", Smithsonian (January 4, 2017).
  56. ^ a b c Taylor, Adam. "This Kremlin leader bragged about tipping a U.S. presidential election", Washington Post (January 6, 2017).
  57. ^ Powers, Francis (2004). Operation Overflight: A Memoir of the U-2 Incident. Potomac Books, Inc. p. 152,159. ISBN 9781574884227.
  58. ^ "Interview with Oleg Troyanowski", National Security Archive (November 15, 1998).
  59. ^ Farago, Ladislas. The game of the foxes: the untold story of German espionage in the United States and Great Britain during World War II, p. 387 (D. McKay Co., 1972).
  60. ^ Usdin, Steve (16 January 2017). "When a Foreign Government Interfered in a U.S. Election—to Reelect FDR". Politico. Retrieved 1 October 2017.
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