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In August 1943 the Germans conducted a major clearing operation, dubbed the "big hunt", against villages and partisan groups in the Naliboki Forest. Partisan groups in the forest and surrounding villages suffered major casualties. The Bielski partisans, however, split into small groups and assembled back in their former base in the Jasinowo forest.<ref>[https://books.google.co.il/books?id=tM9EeN01rvYC&pg=PA241&dq=assemble+Jasinowo&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjhhMfezvXbAhVSWsAKHSusAkcQ6AEIMzAC#v=snippet&q=assemble%20in%20Jasinowo%20%20&f=false Defiance], Oxford University Press, Nechama Tec, 1993, pages 116-124</ref> The communities around the Naliboki forest were devastated, the Germans deported the non-Jewish residents fit for work to Germany for slave labor and murdered most of the rest. Prior to the manhunt, homeless refugees were mainly Jews who had escaped the ghetto, but in the fall of 1943 non-Jewish Belorussian, Polish, and Gypsies who managed to flee roamed in the forest. Many joined Partisan units, special family camps set up by the Soviets, and some joined the Bielski group who returned to the area and accepted anyone willing to join. While the Germans wrecked many communities, much was left behind in and around the forest that could sustain life. Fields, orchards, and beehives all had their produce and farm animals roamed the area around the forest. While the buildings of the villages were partially demolished, much of the building material was left usable as well as some household goods. The Bielski group foraged and gathered much of these materials, and tended to the fields.<ref>[https://books.google.co.il/books?id=tM9EeN01rvYC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q=wrecked%20many%20communities&f=false Defiance], Oxford University Press, Nechama Tec, 1993, pages 127-129</ref>
In August 1943 the Germans conducted a major clearing operation, dubbed the "big hunt", against villages and partisan groups in the Naliboki Forest. Partisan groups in the forest and surrounding villages suffered major casualties. The Bielski partisans, however, split into small groups and assembled back in their former base in the Jasinowo forest.<ref>[https://books.google.co.il/books?id=tM9EeN01rvYC&pg=PA241&dq=assemble+Jasinowo&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjhhMfezvXbAhVSWsAKHSusAkcQ6AEIMzAC#v=snippet&q=assemble%20in%20Jasinowo%20%20&f=false Defiance], Oxford University Press, Nechama Tec, 1993, pages 116-124</ref> The communities around the Naliboki forest were devastated, the Germans deported the non-Jewish residents fit for work to Germany for slave labor and murdered most of the rest. Prior to the manhunt, homeless refugees were mainly Jews who had escaped the ghetto, but in the fall of 1943 non-Jewish Belorussian, Polish, and Gypsies who managed to flee roamed in the forest. Many joined Partisan units, special family camps set up by the Soviets, and some joined the Bielski group who returned to the area and accepted anyone willing to join. While the Germans wrecked many communities, much was left behind in and around the forest that could sustain life. Fields, orchards, and beehives all had their produce and farm animals roamed the area around the forest. While the buildings of the villages were partially demolished, much of the building material was left usable as well as some household goods. The Bielski group foraged and gathered much of these materials, and tended to the fields.<ref>[https://books.google.co.il/books?id=tM9EeN01rvYC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q=wrecked%20many%20communities&f=false Defiance], Oxford University Press, Nechama Tec, 1993, pages 127-129</ref>

⚫
Like some other Soviet-affiliated partisan groups in the area, the Bielski partisans raided nearby villages and forcibly seized food; on occasion, peasants who refused to share their food with the partisans were subjected to violence, even murder. This caused hostility for the partisans on the part of peasants, though some willingly helped the Jewish partisans. As the region had already been completely pacified by the Germans, and many villages had been burned down, the local population was in an especially dire situation.<ref>Kazimierz Krajewski – „Opór”? „Odwet”? Czy po prostu „polityka historyczna”? nr 3/2009 - Instytut Pamięci Narodowej page 104</ref><ref name='Camps'>{{cite web|url=http://www1.yadvashem.org/odot_pdf/microsoft%20word%20-%205841.pdf |title=Family Camps in the Forest |accessdate=2009-01-22 |publisher=Shoah Resource Center }}</ref><ref name="hollywood">[http://wyborcza.pl/1,76842,5316759,A_Hollywood_Movie_About_Heroes_or_Murderers_.html A Hollywood Movie About Heroes or Murderers?], ''Gazeta Wyborcza'', 2008-06-16</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://wyborcza.pl/duzyformat/1,127290,5318207,Wymazany_Aron_Bell.html|title=Wymazany Aron Bell|work=wyborcza.pl|access-date=2018-06-05|language=pl-PL}}</ref> The Belorussian farmers were struggling to supply all the forces who were demanding food (Germans, Soviet, and Jews), one of the partisans said that "A partisan was something between a hero and a robber. We had to live and we had to deprive the peasants of their meager belongings", and that "Often we took by force from poor peasants who were not even pro-Nazi.". However, some peasants informed on the Jewish partisans in the forests to the Germans.<ref>http://www.yadvashem.org/yv/en/education/newsletter/28/bielski_brothers.asp#09 The International School for Holocaust Studies Solidarity in the Forest – The Bielski Brothers By Franziska Reiniger</ref>


The Bielski partisans eventually became affiliated with Soviet organisations in the vicinity of the [[Naliboki Forest]] under General Platon (Vasily Yefimovich Chernyshev). Several attempts by Soviet commanders to absorb the Bielski fighters into their units were resisted,{{cn|date=June 2018}} and the Jewish partisan group retained its integrity and remained under Tuvia Bielski's command. This allowed him to continue his mission of protecting Jewish lives and engaging in combat activity, but it would prove a problem later on.{{cn|date=June 2018}}
The Bielski partisans eventually became affiliated with Soviet organisations in the vicinity of the [[Naliboki Forest]] under General Platon (Vasily Yefimovich Chernyshev). Several attempts by Soviet commanders to absorb the Bielski fighters into their units were resisted,{{cn|date=June 2018}} and the Jewish partisan group retained its integrity and remained under Tuvia Bielski's command. This allowed him to continue his mission of protecting Jewish lives and engaging in combat activity, but it would prove a problem later on.{{cn|date=June 2018}}


In September 1943 General Platon ordered the splitting of the group. The first group, named ''Ordzhonikidze'' (a famous Georgian communist), was a 180 mainly Jewish fighting detachment (commanded by a non-Jew Lyushenko). All the rest were designated as ''Kalinin'' and included some 800 people, including 160 armed defenders, that were based in Naliboki forest and provided services to other partisan groups in the forest as well as participating in sabotage and diversionary actions. On 1 April 1944 the group was renamed as the ''Bielski otriad''.<ref name="Bauer2007"/>
In September 1943 General Platon ordered the splitting of the group. The first group, named ''Ordzhonikidze'' (a famous Georgian communist), was a 180 mainly Jewish fighting detachment (commanded by a non-Jew Lyushenko). All the rest were designated as ''Kalinin'' and included some 800 people, including 160 armed defenders, that were based in Naliboki forest and provided services to other partisan groups in the forest as well as participating in sabotage and diversionary actions. On 1 April 1944 the group was renamed as the ''Bielski otriad''.<ref name="Bauer2007"/>

⚫
Like other Soviet-affiliated partisan groups in the area, the Bielski partisans raided nearby villages and forcibly seized food; on occasion, peasants who refused to share their food with the partisans were subjected to violence, even murder. This caused hostility toward the partisans on the part of the peasants, though some willingly helped the Jewish partisans. Other peasants informed on the Jewish partisans in the forests to the Germans.<ref>http://www.yadvashem.org/yv/en/education/newsletter/28/bielski_brothers.asp#09 The International School for Holocaust Studies Solidarity in the Forest – The Bielski Brothers By Franziska Reiniger</ref> As the region had already been completely pacified by the Germans, and many villages had been burned down, the local population was in an especially dire situation.<ref name=opor>Kazimierz Krajewski – „Opór”? „Odwet”? Czy po prostu „polityka historyczna”? nr 3/2009 - Instytut Pamięci Narodowej page 104</ref><ref name='Camps'>{{cite web|url=http://www1.yadvashem.org/odot_pdf/microsoft%20word%20-%205841.pdf |title=Family Camps in the Forest |accessdate=2009-01-22 |publisher=Shoah Resource Center }}</ref><ref name="hollywood">[http://wyborcza.pl/1,76842,5316759,A_Hollywood_Movie_About_Heroes_or_Murderers_.html A Hollywood Movie About Heroes or Murderers?], ''Gazeta Wyborcza'', 2008-06-16</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://wyborcza.pl/duzyformat/1,127290,5318207,Wymazany_Aron_Bell.html|title=Wymazany Aron Bell|work=wyborcza.pl|access-date=2018-06-05|language=pl-PL}}</ref> The Belorussian farmers struggled to supply all the forces who were demanding food (Germans, Soviet, and Jews). One of the partisans said that "A partisan was something between a hero and a robber. We had to live and we had to deprive the peasants of their meager belongings", and that "Often we took by force from poor peasants who were not even pro-Nazi." The partisans of the Bielski and [[Simcha Zorin]] units became infamous among locals for their ruthlessness during raids, so much so that stopping their depredations became a chief point in negotiations between the Soviet command and the Polish Home Army.<ref>Kazimierz Krajewski – „Opór”? „Odwet”? Czy po prostu „polityka historyczna”? nr 3/2009 - Instytut Pamięci Narodowej page 104-105</ref> The Polish resistance officially complained to the Soviets about alleged rapes and murders, including murders of young children, committed by these Soviet partisan groups, and asked the Soviet command to stop their food-requisitioning expeditions.<ref>Kazimierz Krajewski – „Opór”? „Odwet”? Czy po prostu „polityka historyczna”? nr 3/2009 - Instytut Pamięci Narodowej page 105</ref>


====Assessment of combat operations====
====Assessment of combat operations====
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=== Relations with other groups ===
=== Relations with other groups ===


The Bielski partisans had friendly relations with the local [[Home Army]] commander, 2nd Lt. Kacpar Miłaszewski. Miłaszewski, a native of the region, located his camp a kilometer away from the Bielski camp, and according to Tuvia Bielski's memoirs felt a deep sympathy for the Bielski group because it sheltered women, elderly and children.
The Bielski partisans had friendly relations with the local [[Home Army]] commander, 2nd Lt. Kacpar Miłaszewski. Miłaszewski, a native of the region, located his camp a kilometer away from the Bielski camp, and according to Tuvia Bielski's memoirs felt a deep sympathy for the Bielski group because it sheltered women, elderly and children. In August 1943 the Germans conducted a large scale pacification action in the Naliboki forest inflicting losses on civilians, Polish [[Home Army]] units, Soviet partisans, and the Bielski group.<ref>The Polish Underground and the Jews, 1939-1945, Cambridge University Press, [[Joshua D. Zimmerman]], {{ISBN|978-1107014268}}, pages 273-275</ref><ref>[https://books.google.co.il/books?id=tM9EeN01rvYC&pg=PA241&dq=bielski+%22polish+underground%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjhhMfezvXbAhVSWsAKHSusAkcQ6AEIMzAC#v=onepage&q=%22local%20pole%22&f=false Defiance], Oxford University Press, Nechama Tec, 1993, pages 114-117</ref>


Following the German action, in which the Home Army unit lost 120 men and was forced out of the forest, Miłaszewski was demoted and replaced with [[Adolf Pilch]] who was placed in charge of the Stolpce battalion.<ref name=Zimmerman274_277/> Some of the Polish officers who joined the unit belonged to the fascist [[National Armed Forces|NSZ]] which throughout the war waged multiple battles against the Germans, the Russians, the Jews, and Poles who disagreed with them politically.<ref name="Tec2009_212_214">[https://books.google.co.il/books?id=ow0fX5FviF4C&printsec=frontcover&dq=tec+defiance&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjXveHxwvnbAhWJZlAKHSOPDQUQ6AEIJzAA#v=onepage&q=NSZ&f=false Defiance], Oxford University Press, Nechama Tec, 2009, page 212-214</ref> In September 1943 Pilch ordered his men to reenter the forest. Since the Soviets had began a policy of confrontation against the Polish anti-Nazi underground, which it saw as a threat to its aims in Eastern Poland, Plich ordered his men to engage not only the Germans but also Soviet and Jewish partisans.<ref name=Zimmerman274_277/>The Polish unit upon capturing Russians partisans would beat them up and take their weapons, but would free them. However, unprotected Jewish civilians who were caught by the Poles were attacked and killed.<ref name="Tec2009_212_214"/> On September 17 1943, Pilch reported his men captured a group of Jewish partisans and disarmed them. Following an "attempt to flee", the captured Jewish partisans were shot and discreetly buried. However, according to Pilch, one Jew managed to escape and report the incident to the Soviet staff, which resulted in the Soviets demanding the execution of the squadron commander involved and his staff.<ref name=Zimmerman274_277/> In response to the incident, Tuvia Bielski said "They attacked the Jews because they were anti-Semites and obviously because they were afraid to murder Russians".<ref name="Tec2009_212_214"/>
In August 1943 during the Germans large scale pacification action in the Naliboki forest civilians, Polish [[Home Army]] units, Soviet partisans, and the Bielski group all suffered heavy casualties.<ref>The Polish Underground and the Jews, 1939-1945, Cambridge University Press, [[Joshua D. Zimmerman]], {{ISBN|978-1107014268}}, pages 273-275</ref><ref>[https://books.google.co.il/books?id=tM9EeN01rvYC&pg=PA241&dq=bielski+%22polish+underground%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjhhMfezvXbAhVSWsAKHSusAkcQ6AEIMzAC#v=onepage&q=%22local%20pole%22&f=false Defiance], Oxford University Press, Nechama Tec, 1993, pages 114-117</ref> While the Soviet and Polish partisans had initially agreed upon joint response to the Germans' pacification action, during the fight, the Soviet and Jewish partisans suddenly withdrew from the agreed positions, exposing the Polish units to German attack. As a result the Polish forces were decimiated.<ref>Gazeta Wyborcza - 12/01/2009 Piotr Gluchowski, Marcin Kowalski Wojna polsko-ruska pod bokiem niemieckim Dlaczego Niemcy pozwolili przejść przez pół Polski 860 akowcom w pełnym uzbrojeniu?</ref>


On 1 December 1943 a Soviet operation against the Stolpce battalion was launched. The 400 man Soviet force, included 50 men from the Bielski partisans. The Soviet force surrounded Pilch's men, and without a shot fired, some 135 Polish soldiers and 9 officers were arrested. However, Pilch managed to evade capture along with 50 others. Following his escape, Pilch signed a truce with the Germans in exchange to receiving arms with which to fight the Russians.<ref name=Zimmerman274_277>The Polish Underground and the Jews, 1939-1945, Cambridge University Press, [[Joshua D. Zimmerman]], {{ISBN|978-1107014268}}, pages 274-277</ref><ref name="Tec2009_212_214"/> The captured Polish officers were sent to Moscow. However, many of the captured Polish prisoners, who came from nearby villages and town, managed to subsequently escape from the Soviet partisan groups who held them. The Polish fighters remained active in the villages surrounding the Bielski group, and villages protected by Polish fighters, would inform Soviet fighters of this status. Jewish partisans attempted to avoid areas dominated by such Polish fighters, while the Poles avoided the Forest. The Poles, who were well organized, continued to attack unprotected Jewish civilians.<ref>[https://books.google.co.il/books?id=tM9EeN01rvYC&pg=PA241&dq=bielski+%22polish+underground%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjhhMfezvXbAhVSWsAKHSusAkcQ6AEIMzAC#v=snippet&q=%22protected%20by%20Poles%22&f=false Defiance], Oxford University Press, Nechama Tec, 1993, pages 153</ref>
Following the German action, in which the Home Army unit lost 120 men and was forced out of the forest, Miłaszewski was demoted and replaced with [[Adolf Pilch]] who was placed in charge of the Stolpce battalion. By September 1943 the Soviets began a policy of confrontation against the Polish anti-Nazi underground, which it saw as a threat to its aims in Eastern Poland.<ref name=wojna/> In December the Soviets drew Plich's men into a trap by inviting them to "friendly talks", then surrounded Pilch's men and threatened to execute kidnapped Polish officers unless the unit surrendered. Bielski's unit participated in this operation.<ref name=wojna/> Some 135 Polish soldiers and 9 officers were arrested. However, Pilch managed to evade capture along with 50 others; according to Pilch the Bielski partisans were too distracted with pillaging the Polish camp in search of valuables, which allowed him to escape capture.<ref name=wojna/> Pilch's unit would continue to fight the Soviet partisans.<ref name=wojna/><ref>[https://books.google.co.il/books?id=tM9EeN01rvYC&pg=PA241&dq=bielski+%22polish+underground%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjhhMfezvXbAhVSWsAKHSusAkcQ6AEIMzAC#v=snippet&q=%22protected%20by%20Poles%22&f=false Defiance], Oxford University Press, Nechama Tec, 1993, pages 153</ref> Fighting on the Soviet side, the Bielski partisans took part in [[Soviet partisans in Poland|clashes between Polish and Soviet forces]].<ref name=wyborcza>{{en icon}} ''[http://wyborcza.pl/1,76842,6125087,The_True_Story_of_the_Bielski_Brothers.html The True Story of the Bielski Brothers]'' {{pl icon}} ''[http://wyborcza.pl/1,76842,6124559,Prawdziwa_historia_Bielskich.html Prawdziwa historia Bielskich]'', ''[[Gazeta Wyborcza]]'', 2009-01-06</ref> On 5 March 1944, Zus's fighter detachment attacked jointly with Soviet forces a group of Polish fighters, killing 47 and injuring 20 more. On The 22nd of March, 20 Jewish fighters managed to ambush a Nazi convoy and kill 12.<ref>The Bielski Brothers: The True Story of Three Men Who Defied the Nazis, Built a Village in the Forest, and Saved 1,200 Jews, [[Peter Duffy]], 2004, page 246</ref> According to Kazimierz Krajewski in May 1944 the village of Kamień, in [[Stowbtsy|Stolpce]], was attacked by a force involving Bielski partisans; 23 Home Army soldiers and 20 civilians were killed.<ref>Kazimierz Krajewski – „Opór”? „Odwet”? Czy po prostu „polityka historyczna”? nr 3/2009 - Instytut Pamięci Narodowej page 105</ref>


===Disbandment===
===Disbandment===
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Poland's [[Institute of National Remembrance]] has been investigating the massacre since the early 2000s. As of April 2009, it had not issued an official finding.<ref name="IPN"/><ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[National Public Radio]]|title=Jewish Brothers' Resistance Inspired'Defiance'|url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=98759355&ft=3&f=searchTerm=The+Great+Escape1045|date=2008-12-28|accessdate=2009-01-20}}</ref> But some historians{{who|date=December 2013}} working at the Institute have asserted in other publications that the Bielski brothers were not involved in the massacre.<ref name=rpmus/>
Poland's [[Institute of National Remembrance]] has been investigating the massacre since the early 2000s. As of April 2009, it had not issued an official finding.<ref name="IPN"/><ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[National Public Radio]]|title=Jewish Brothers' Resistance Inspired'Defiance'|url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=98759355&ft=3&f=searchTerm=The+Great+Escape1045|date=2008-12-28|accessdate=2009-01-20}}</ref> But some historians{{who|date=December 2013}} working at the Institute have asserted in other publications that the Bielski brothers were not involved in the massacre.<ref name=rpmus/>

Historian Kazimierz Krajewski lists other incidents in which Bielski partisans were involved, including the surprise attack against a Home Army unit in December 1943 after it had signed an agreement of cooperation with Soviet partisans, in which over a dozen Home Army soldiers were murdered, and in following days 50 more were killed. In May 1944 the village of Kamień, in [[Stowbtsy|Stolpce]], was attacked by a force involving Bielski partisans; 20 Home Army soldiers and 20 civilians were killed. In May 1944 a unit of Bielski partisans together with Soviets murdered 47 Poles in the Lidzkie region, in Filonowiec and Dokudowa, mainly civilian families accused of supporting the Polish Home Army.<ref>Kazimierz Krajewski – „Opór”? „Odwet”? Czy po prostu „polityka historyczna”? nr 3/2009 - Instytut Pamięci Narodowej page 105</ref>


==Books and film==
==Books and film==

Revision as of 05:22, 30 June 2018

Bielski partisans

The Bielski partisans were a unit of Jewish partisans who rescued Jews from extermination and fought the German occupiers and their collaborators around Nowogródek (Navahrudak) and Lida (now in western Belarus) in German-occupied Poland. The partisan unit was named after the Bielskis, a family of Polish Jews who organized and led the organization.

The Bielski partisans spent more than two years living in the forests. Under their protection, 1,236 Jews survived the war.[1]

Background

Before World War II, the Bielski family had been millers and grocers[2] in Stankiewicze (Stankievichy), near Nowogródek, an area that at the outbreak of the war belonged to Poland and in September 1939 was occupied by the Soviet Union (cf. Polish September Campaign and Soviet invasion of Poland (1939)) in accord with the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact between Germany and the Soviet Union.

Before the war, Tuvia Bielski had received training in the Polish Army. After performing reserve duty, he engaged in trade, eventually becoming a smuggler.[3]

Under the Soviet occupation of eastern Poland, the remainder of the Bielski family served as low-level administrators for the Soviets, with Tuvia Bielski becoming a Soviet commissar.[4][5] This strained the Bielskis' relations with local Poles, who were subjected to Soviet repressions.

During Operation Barbarossa, the German invasion of the Soviet Union beginning 22 June 1941, Nowogródek became a Jewish ghetto, as the Germans took over the area and implemented their genocidal policies (see Holocaust in Poland and Holocaust in Belarus).

Partisans

Formation

The four Bielski brothers, Tuvia, Alexander (also known as "Zus"), Asael, and Aron, managed to flee into the nearby forests after their parents and other family members had been killed in the ghetto on 8 December 1941. In the spring of 1942, together with thirteen ghetto neighbors, they formed the nucleus of a partisan combat unit. The unit originally numbered some forty people, but quickly grew.

The unit's commander was the oldest brother, Tuvia, who had served in the Polish Army from 1927 to 1929, rising to the rank of corporal. He had been interested in the Zionist youth movement. He sent emissaries to infiltrate the area's ghettos, recruiting new members to the unit, which was sheltering in the Naliboki Forest. Hundreds of men, women, and children eventually found their way to the Bielski encampment; at its peak, the unit hosted 1,236 people, 70% of them women, children, and elderly; no one was turned away.[1] About 150 persons engaged in armed operations.[1]

Organization

The partisans lived in underground dugouts (zemlyankas) or bunkers. In addition, several utility structures were built: a kitchen, a mill, a bakery, a bathhouse, a medical clinic for the sick and wounded and a quarantine hut for those who suffered from infectious diseases such as typhus. Herds of cows supplied milk. Artisans made goods and carried out repairs, providing the combatants with logistical support that later served the Soviet partisan units in the vicinity as well. More than 125 workers toiled in the workshops, which became famous among partisans far beyond the Bielski base. Tailors patched up old clothing and stitched together new garments; shoemakers fixed old and made new footwear; leather-workers laboured on belts, bridles and saddles. A metalworking shop established by Shmuel Oppenheim repaired damaged weapons and constructed new ones from spare parts. A tannery, constructed to produce the hide for cobblers and leather workers, became a de facto synagogue because several tanners were devout Hasidic Jews. Carpenters, hat-makers, barbers and watchmakers served their own community and guests. The camp's many children attended class in the dugout set up as a school. The camp even had its own jail and court of law.[6]

Some accounts note the inequality between well-off partisans and poor inhabitants of the camp.[7] According to one of Tuvia Bielski's cousins who lived in the camp, relayed to her daughter, women were forced to strip naked upon entry and give up their underwear as a form of "entry ticket".[8]

Internal conflict

Tuvia Bielski was known for his authoritarian leadership style and was constantly involved in power struggles with other members of the unit. Israel Kessler, who tried to organize a group of people to leave the Bielski camp and form their own unit,[9] and others sent letters to General Platon and other Soviet officials that Tuvia Bielski was holding gold and jewelry in contradiction to partisan orders to hand these over to headquarters. A unit member, Stepan Szupien, suggested to the Soviets that they arrest and execute Bielski, accusing him of confiscating money under the pretext of buying weapons.[10] The Soviet command, concerned about the unit's leadership, began an internal investigation into an alleged protection racket conducted by Bielski. Chernishev cleared Bielski of the charges following an investigation.[11][12] Bielski viewed Kessler's actions as rebellion, put Kessler on trial, and executed him.[11] According to witness Estera Gorodejska, a drunk Bielski personally executed Kessler with three shots. Later Bielski ordered the destruction of Kessler's grave.[13]

Activities

The Bielski unit's partisans were primarily concerned with survival. Due to their poor equipment and training, they were not assigned main combat roles. Instead, its members operated field kitchens, hospitals, and bakeries and provided tailoring and cobbling services for Soviet soldiers.[14] Their main task, though, was forced requisitioning of food and other supplies from the local population.[15]

The Bielski partisans' targets also included the Germans and their collaborators who had betrayed or killed Jews, such as Belarusian volunteer policemen and local inhabitants, as well as their families. In one case, the Bielski partisans killed some 12 people from a Belorussian family who had betrayed two Jewish girls to the Germans. In another, the Bielski partisans killed several collaborators whose names they extracted from Ivan Tzwirkes, a collaborator with a Jewish wife.[16] They also conducted sabotage.

At the beginning of 1943 German planes dropped leaflets in the area promising a 50,000 Reichsmark reward for assistance in the capture of Tuvia Bielski, this figure was subsequently doubled to 100,000 RM. The leaflets, which were intended for the Christian population, also reached Jews and provided motivation and courage to attempt an escape to the forest camp.[17]

In August 1943 the Germans conducted a major clearing operation, dubbed the "big hunt", against villages and partisan groups in the Naliboki Forest. Partisan groups in the forest and surrounding villages suffered major casualties. The Bielski partisans, however, split into small groups and assembled back in their former base in the Jasinowo forest.[18] The communities around the Naliboki forest were devastated, the Germans deported the non-Jewish residents fit for work to Germany for slave labor and murdered most of the rest. Prior to the manhunt, homeless refugees were mainly Jews who had escaped the ghetto, but in the fall of 1943 non-Jewish Belorussian, Polish, and Gypsies who managed to flee roamed in the forest. Many joined Partisan units, special family camps set up by the Soviets, and some joined the Bielski group who returned to the area and accepted anyone willing to join. While the Germans wrecked many communities, much was left behind in and around the forest that could sustain life. Fields, orchards, and beehives all had their produce and farm animals roamed the area around the forest. While the buildings of the villages were partially demolished, much of the building material was left usable as well as some household goods. The Bielski group foraged and gathered much of these materials, and tended to the fields.[19]

Like some other Soviet-affiliated partisan groups in the area, the Bielski partisans raided nearby villages and forcibly seized food; on occasion, peasants who refused to share their food with the partisans were subjected to violence, even murder. This caused hostility for the partisans on the part of peasants, though some willingly helped the Jewish partisans. As the region had already been completely pacified by the Germans, and many villages had been burned down, the local population was in an especially dire situation.[20][21][22][23] The Belorussian farmers were struggling to supply all the forces who were demanding food (Germans, Soviet, and Jews), one of the partisans said that "A partisan was something between a hero and a robber. We had to live and we had to deprive the peasants of their meager belongings", and that "Often we took by force from poor peasants who were not even pro-Nazi.". However, some peasants informed on the Jewish partisans in the forests to the Germans.[24]

The Bielski partisans eventually became affiliated with Soviet organisations in the vicinity of the Naliboki Forest under General Platon (Vasily Yefimovich Chernyshev). Several attempts by Soviet commanders to absorb the Bielski fighters into their units were resisted,[citation needed] and the Jewish partisan group retained its integrity and remained under Tuvia Bielski's command. This allowed him to continue his mission of protecting Jewish lives and engaging in combat activity, but it would prove a problem later on.[citation needed]

In September 1943 General Platon ordered the splitting of the group. The first group, named Ordzhonikidze (a famous Georgian communist), was a 180 mainly Jewish fighting detachment (commanded by a non-Jew Lyushenko). All the rest were designated as Kalinin and included some 800 people, including 160 armed defenders, that were based in Naliboki forest and provided services to other partisan groups in the forest as well as participating in sabotage and diversionary actions. On 1 April 1944 the group was renamed as the Bielski otriad.[16]

Assessment of combat operations

According to Kazimierz Krajewski a report sent from Tuvia Bielski to Soviet command in November 1943, stated that in two years of prior operations their group of nearly on thousand people managed to kill 14 Germans, 17 policemen, and 33 spies and provocateurs (per Krajewski these likely include peasants not sympathetic to Soviet partisans or resisting plunder). In Krajewski's opinion, 14 killed Germans is not substantial for the period.[25] Even these numbers, which were included as claims made in a report that Tuvia Bielski submitted to Soviet authorities, Krajewski believes to be overestimates.[26]

According to partisan documentation, in the period from the fall of 1943 to summer 1944 the Bielski fighters (1140 Jews, of which 149 were armed combatants) claimed to have carried out 38 combat missions, destroying 2 locomotives, 23 train cars, 32 telegraph poles, a 4 bridges.[27] In total, during the war, the Bielski partisans claim to have killed 381 enemy fighters (in part, jointly with Soviet groups), and lost 50 members of the Beilski group.[28][29]

Relations with other groups

The Bielski partisans had friendly relations with the local Home Army commander, 2nd Lt. Kacpar Miłaszewski. Miłaszewski, a native of the region, located his camp a kilometer away from the Bielski camp, and according to Tuvia Bielski's memoirs felt a deep sympathy for the Bielski group because it sheltered women, elderly and children. In August 1943 the Germans conducted a large scale pacification action in the Naliboki forest inflicting losses on civilians, Polish Home Army units, Soviet partisans, and the Bielski group.[30][31]

Following the German action, in which the Home Army unit lost 120 men and was forced out of the forest, Miłaszewski was demoted and replaced with Adolf Pilch who was placed in charge of the Stolpce battalion.[32] Some of the Polish officers who joined the unit belonged to the fascist NSZ which throughout the war waged multiple battles against the Germans, the Russians, the Jews, and Poles who disagreed with them politically.[33] In September 1943 Pilch ordered his men to reenter the forest. Since the Soviets had began a policy of confrontation against the Polish anti-Nazi underground, which it saw as a threat to its aims in Eastern Poland, Plich ordered his men to engage not only the Germans but also Soviet and Jewish partisans.[32]The Polish unit upon capturing Russians partisans would beat them up and take their weapons, but would free them. However, unprotected Jewish civilians who were caught by the Poles were attacked and killed.[33] On September 17 1943, Pilch reported his men captured a group of Jewish partisans and disarmed them. Following an "attempt to flee", the captured Jewish partisans were shot and discreetly buried. However, according to Pilch, one Jew managed to escape and report the incident to the Soviet staff, which resulted in the Soviets demanding the execution of the squadron commander involved and his staff.[32] In response to the incident, Tuvia Bielski said "They attacked the Jews because they were anti-Semites and obviously because they were afraid to murder Russians".[33]

On 1 December 1943 a Soviet operation against the Stolpce battalion was launched. The 400 man Soviet force, included 50 men from the Bielski partisans. The Soviet force surrounded Pilch's men, and without a shot fired, some 135 Polish soldiers and 9 officers were arrested. However, Pilch managed to evade capture along with 50 others. Following his escape, Pilch signed a truce with the Germans in exchange to receiving arms with which to fight the Russians.[32][33] The captured Polish officers were sent to Moscow. However, many of the captured Polish prisoners, who came from nearby villages and town, managed to subsequently escape from the Soviet partisan groups who held them. The Polish fighters remained active in the villages surrounding the Bielski group, and villages protected by Polish fighters, would inform Soviet fighters of this status. Jewish partisans attempted to avoid areas dominated by such Polish fighters, while the Poles avoided the Forest. The Poles, who were well organized, continued to attack unprotected Jewish civilians.[34]

Disbandment

In the summer of 1944, when the Soviet counteroffensive began in Belarus and the area was taken over by the Soviets, the Kalinin unit, numbering some 1,200 of which 70% were women, elderly, and children, marched into Nowogródek. Following one final parade, they disbanded.[35]

Despite their previous collaboration with the Soviets, relations quickly worsened.[36] The NKVD started interrogating the Bielski brothers about the rumours of loot they had reportedly collected during the war, and about their failure to "implement socialist ideals in the camp".[36] Asael Bielski was conscripted into the Soviet Red Army and died in the Battle of Königsberg in 1945.[36] The remaining brothers escaped Soviet-controlled lands, emigrating to the West.[36] Tuvia's cousin, Yehuda Bielski, was sought by the NKVD for having been an officer in the pre-war Polish Army, but managed to escape with Tuvia's help and made his way to Hungary and then to Israel.[37]

Post-war

After the war, Tuvia Bielski returned to Poland, then emigrated to present-day Israel in 1945. Tuvia and Zus eventually settled in New York where they operated a successful trucking business. When Tuvia died in 1987, he was buried in Long Island, New York, but a year later, at the urging of surviving partisans in Israel, he was exhumed and given a hero's funeral at Har Hamenuchot, the hillside graveyard in Jerusalem. His wife, Lilka, was buried beside him in 2001.

The last living Bielski brother, Aron Bielski, emigrated to the US in 1951. He changed his name to "Aron Bell." The remainder of the Bell family now lives in upstate New York and California. Aron lives in Florida. None of the Bielskis ever sought any recognition or reward for their actions.

Yehuda Bielski, their first cousin and fellow partisan, moved to Israel to fight in the Irgun.[38]

Allegations of war crimes

Some Bielski partisans (but not the Bielski brothers themselves) have been accused of war crimes against the neighboring population, particularly of involvement in the 1943 Naliboki massacre of 129 persons, committed by Soviet partisans.[39] Though some witnesses and historians[who?] place Bielski partisans at the massacre, former members and other historians such as Bogdan Musiał dispute this,[40] stating that the partisans did not arrive in the area until several months later.[41] Musiał notes that some Bielski partisans stole food from the massacre's survivors.[40]

Poland's Institute of National Remembrance has been investigating the massacre since the early 2000s. As of April 2009, it had not issued an official finding.[39][42] But some historians[who?] working at the Institute have asserted in other publications that the Bielski brothers were not involved in the massacre.[40]

Books and film

Two recent English language books have focused on the Bielski story: Defiance (1993) by Nechama Tec and The Bielski Brothers (2004) by Peter Duffy. The group is also mentioned in numerous books about this period in history. A book (January 2009) in Polish by two reporters from Gazeta Wyborcza, Odwet: Prawdziwa historia braci Bielskich (Revenge: The True Story of the Bielski Brothers) was accused of consisting of plagiarism[43] and withdrawn.[44] It focused on the larger political and historical context in which the partisans operated, specifically the fighting between Polish and Soviet resistance groups in the Kresy (former Eastern Poland) region. Fugitives of the Forest: The Heroic Story of Jewish Resistance and Survival During the Second World War, by Allan Levine (first published 1998, 2008 reissue, by Lyons Press),[45] tells the story of Jewish fighters and refugees in forests across Europe, including the Bielski partisans. With Courage Shall We Fight: The Memoirs and Poetry of Holocaust Resistance Fighters Frances "Fruma" Gulkowich Berger and Murray “Motke” Berger tells the story of two Bielski Brigade fighters before, during and after the war.

In 2006, the History Channel aired a documentary titled The Bielski Brothers: Jerusalem in the Woods, written and directed by filmmaker Dean Ward.[46]

An episode of the BBC series Who Do You Think You Are? featured UK television personality Natasha Kaplinsky discovering that her great-uncle Ytsak Kaplinski was a member of the Bielski partisans. He survived the war and emigrated to South Africa.[47]

The BBC series Ray Mears's Extreme Survival featured an episode about the Bielski partisans.[48]

The feature film Defiance, co-written, produced and directed by Edward Zwick, was released internationally in January 2009. It stars Daniel Craig, Liev Schreiber, Jamie Bell and George MacKay as Tuvia, Zus, Asael and Aron Bielski respectively. It opened to mixed reviews[49] and raised questions about the roles various groups played during the war.[50]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ a b c "THE BIELSKI PARTISANS". United States Holocaust Museum. Archived from the original on 14 January 2009. Retrieved 2009-01-15. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  2. ^ Tec, Nechama (1993). Defiance: The Bielski Partisans. Oxford University Press US. ISBN 0-19-509390-9.
  3. ^ Gazeta Wyborcza - 12/01/2009 Piotr Gluchowski, Marcin Kowalski< PIOTR GŁUCHOWSKI, MARCIN KOWALSKI Wojna polsko-ruska pod bokiem niemieckim
  4. ^ Gazeta Wyborcza - 12/01/2009 Piotr Gluchowski, Marcin Kowalski< PIOTR GŁUCHOWSKI, MARCIN KOWALSKI Wojna polsko-ruska pod bokiem niemieckim
  5. ^ Snyder, Timothy, "Caught Between Hitler & Stalin", The New York Review of Books, vol. 56, no. 7 (30 April 2009), [1] (restricted)
  6. ^ Peter Duffy, The Bielski Brothers. New York, HarperCollins, 2003, ISBN 0-06-621074-7, pp. 214-17.
  7. ^ Template:Pl icon Piotr Zychowicz, "Bielski pomagał Żydom, ale też ich wykorzystywał" ("Bielski Helped the Jews, but Also Exploited Them"), Rzeczpospolita (The Republic), 23-01-2009.
  8. ^ Template:Pl icon Piotr Zychowicz, "Bielski pomagał Żydom, ale też ich wykorzystywał" ("Bielski Helped the Jews, but Also Exploited Them"), Rzeczpospolita (The Republic), 23-01-2009.
  9. ^ In the Shadow of the Red Banner: Soviet Jews in the War Against Nazi Gemany, Yitzhak Arad, pages 298-299
  10. ^ Kazimierz Krajewski, „Opór”? „Odwet”? Czy po prostu „polityka historyczna”? Instytut Pamięci Narodowej, no. 3/2009, pp. 106-7.
  11. ^ a b In the Shadow of the Red Banner: Soviet Jews in the War Against Nazi Gemany, Yitzhak Arad, pages 298-299
  12. ^ Defiance, Nechama Tec, page 182-3
  13. ^ Template:Pl icon Piotr Zychowicz, "Bielski pomagał Żydom, ale też ich wykorzystywał" ("Bielski Helped Jews but Also Exploited Them"), Rzeczpospolita (The Republic), 23-01-2009
  14. ^ Kazimierz Krajewski, "„Opór”? „Odwet”? Czy po prostu „polityka historyczna”?", Instytut Pamięci Narodowej, no. 3/2009, p. 104.
  15. ^ Kazimierz Krajewski, "„Opór”? „Odwet”? Czy po prostu „polityka historyczna”?", Instytut Pamięci Narodowej, no. 3/2009, p. 104.
  16. ^ a b "Nowogrodek: The Story of a Shtetl." Yad Vashem Studies 35.2 (2007): 59.M, Yehuda Bauer.
  17. ^ Defiance, Oxford University Press, Nechama Tec, 2009, page 315
  18. ^ Defiance, Oxford University Press, Nechama Tec, 1993, pages 116-124
  19. ^ Defiance, Oxford University Press, Nechama Tec, 1993, pages 127-129
  20. ^ Kazimierz Krajewski – „Opór”? „Odwet”? Czy po prostu „polityka historyczna”? nr 3/2009 - Instytut Pamięci Narodowej page 104
  21. ^ "Family Camps in the Forest" (PDF). Shoah Resource Center. Retrieved 2009-01-22.
  22. ^ A Hollywood Movie About Heroes or Murderers?, Gazeta Wyborcza, 2008-06-16
  23. ^ "Wymazany Aron Bell". wyborcza.pl (in Polish). Retrieved 2018-06-05.
  24. ^ http://www.yadvashem.org/yv/en/education/newsletter/28/bielski_brothers.asp#09 The International School for Holocaust Studies Solidarity in the Forest – The Bielski Brothers By Franziska Reiniger
  25. ^ Kazimierz Krajewski, "„Opór”? „Odwet”? Czy po prostu „polityka historyczna”?", Instytut Pamięci Narodowej, no. 3/2009, p. 104.
  26. ^ Kazimierz Krajewski, "„Opór”? „Odwet”? Czy po prostu „polityka historyczna”?", Instytut Pamięci Narodowej, no. 3/2009, p. 104.
  27. ^ The Morality of Self-defense and Military Action: The Judeo-Christian Tradition, David B. Kopel, Praeger, page 119
  28. ^ Duffy, Peter, The Bielski Brothers. New York: HarperCollins, 2003. ISBN 0-06-621074-7. p. 281: "The numbers are cited in the partisan histories of Ordzhonikidze (Fond 3618; Opus I; File 23) and Kalinin (Fond 3500; Opus 4; File 272) in the Minsk archives. The Kalinin history is also available at Yad Vashem (M.41/120).
  29. ^ The Holocaust: An Encyclopedia and Document Collection, ABC-Clio, Paul R. Bartrop, Michael Dickerman, page 83
  30. ^ The Polish Underground and the Jews, 1939-1945, Cambridge University Press, Joshua D. Zimmerman, ISBN 978-1107014268, pages 273-275
  31. ^ Defiance, Oxford University Press, Nechama Tec, 1993, pages 114-117
  32. ^ a b c d The Polish Underground and the Jews, 1939-1945, Cambridge University Press, Joshua D. Zimmerman, ISBN 978-1107014268, pages 274-277
  33. ^ a b c d Defiance, Oxford University Press, Nechama Tec, 2009, page 212-214
  34. ^ Defiance, Oxford University Press, Nechama Tec, 1993, pages 153
  35. ^ Saving One's Own: Jewish Rescuers During the Holocaust, Mordecai Paldiel, University of Nebraska Press, page 94
  36. ^ a b c d Template:Pl icon Piotr Głuchowski, Marcin Kowalski, Wojna polsko-ruska pod bokiem niemieckim, Gazeta Wyborcza, 2009-01-13
  37. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2011-03-10. Retrieved 2009-01-24. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  38. ^ http://www.jewishpress.com/content.cfm?contentid=37115
  39. ^ a b The report (in Polish) about the IPN investigation of Naliboki massacre and other crimes committed by Soviet partisans from Naliboki Forest Archived 2007-10-16 at the Wayback Machine
  40. ^ a b c Template:Pl icon Bogdan Musiał, Bielski w puszczy niedomówień Archived July 18, 2011, at the Wayback Machine, Rzeczpospolita, 31-01-2009
  41. ^ Marissa Brostoff, "Polish Investigators Tie Partisans to Massacre," Forward (8/7/08) http://www.forward.com/articles/13935/
  42. ^ "Jewish Brothers' Resistance Inspired'Defiance'". National Public Radio. 2008-12-28. Retrieved 2009-01-20.
  43. ^ [2]
  44. ^ [3]
  45. ^ Levine, Allan. Fugitives of the Forest. New York: Lyons Press, 2008.
  46. ^ https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0966562/
  47. ^ http://www.whodoyouthinkyouaremagazine.com/episode/natasha-kaplinsky
  48. ^ http://www.2ndgeneration.org.uk/event.php?a=view&event_id=40
  49. ^ "Defiance". Rotten Tomatoes. Archived from the original on 21 January 2009. Retrieved 2009-01-20. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  50. ^ Kamil Tchorek (2008-12-31). "Country split over whether Daniel Craig is film hero or villain". London: The Times. Retrieved 2008-12-31. {{cite news}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)

References

Further reading

  • Berger, Ralph S. and Albert S. Berger, editors "With Courage Shall We Fight: The Memoirs and Poetry of Frances "Fruma" Gulkowich Berger and Murray "Motke" Berger". Comteq Publishing, 2010. ISBN 978-1-935232-20-9.
  • Duffy, Peter, The Bielski Brothers. New York: HarperCollins, 2003. ISBN 0-06-621074-7.
  • Eckman, Lester and Lazar, Chaim, The Jewish Resistance: The History of the Jewish Partisans in Lithuania and White Russia During the Nazi Occupation 1940–1945. Shengold Publishers, 1977. ISBN 0-88400-050-8.
  • Levine, Allan, Fugitives of the Forest: The Heroic Story of Jewish Resistance and Survival During the Second World War. Stoddart, 1998. Reissued with a new introduction by The Lyons Press, 2008. ISBN 978-1-59921-496-2.
  • Tec, Nechama, Defiance: The Bielski Partisans. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993. ISBN 0-19-509390-9.

External links

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