Sargasso Sea: Difference between revisions

Coordinates: 28°N 66°W / 28°N 66°W / 28; -66
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{{other uses|Sargasso Sea (disambiguation)}}
{{other uses|Sargasso Sea (disambiguation)}}
{{distinguish|Saragossa}}
{{distinguish|Saragossa}}
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{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}}
{{short description|Region of the North Atlantic Ocean}}
{{short description|Region of the North Atlantic Ocean}}
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{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2021}}
{{Coord|28|N|66|W|type:waterbody_scale:10000000|display=title}}
{{Coord|28|N|66|W|type:waterbody_scale:10000000|display=title}}


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The '''Sargasso Sea''' ({{IPAc-en|s|ɑr|ˈ|g|æ|s|oʊ}}) is a region of the [[Atlantic Ocean]] bounded by four [[ocean current|currents]] forming an [[ocean gyre]].<ref name="Stow">{{cite book|author1=Stow, Dorrik A.V.|title=Encyclopedia of the Oceans|date=2004|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0198606871|page=90|url=https://books.google.com/books?isbn=0198606877|access-date=27 June 2017}}</ref> Unlike all other regions called [[sea]]s, it has no land boundaries.<ref>{{cite web|author1=NGS Staff|title=Sea|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/sea/|website=nationalgeographic.org|publisher=National Geographic Society|access-date=27 June 2017|date=27 September 2011|quote=...a sea is a division of the ocean that is enclosed or partly enclosed by land...}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Karleskint, George|year=2009|title=Introduction to Marine Biology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0JkKOFIj5pgC&pg=PA47|page=47|location=Boston MA|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=9780495561972|access-date=7 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=25 March 2014|title=What's the Difference between an Ocean and a Sea?|work=Ocean Facts|via=OceanService.NOAA.gov|url=http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/oceanorsea.html|access-date=7 January 2017|location=Silver Spring MD|publisher=National Ocean Service (NOS), National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)}}</ref> It is distinguished from other parts of the Atlantic Ocean by its characteristic brown ''[[Sargassum]]'' seaweed and often calm blue water.<ref name=Stow/>
The '''Sargasso Sea''' ({{IPAc-en|s|ɑr|ˈ|g|æ|s|oʊ}}) is a region of the [[Atlantic Ocean]] bounded by four [[ocean current|currents]] forming an [[ocean gyre]].<ref name="Stow">{{cite book|author1=Stow, Dorrik A.V.|title=Encyclopedia of the Oceans|date=2004|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0198606871|page=90|url=https://books.google.com/books?isbn=0198606877|access-date=27 June 2017}}</ref> Unlike all other regions called [[sea]]s, it has no land boundaries.<ref>{{cite web|author1=NGS Staff|title=Sea|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/sea/|website=nationalgeographic.org|publisher=National Geographic Society|access-date=27 June 2017|date=27 September 2011|quote=...a sea is a division of the ocean that is enclosed or partly enclosed by land...}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Karleskint, George|year=2009|title=Introduction to Marine Biology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0JkKOFIj5pgC&pg=PA47|page=47|location=Boston MA|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=9780495561972|access-date=7 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=25 March 2014|title=What's the Difference between an Ocean and a Sea?|work=Ocean Facts|via=OceanService.NOAA.gov|url=http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/oceanorsea.html|access-date=7 January 2017|location=Silver Spring MD|publisher=National Ocean Service (NOS), National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)}}</ref> It is distinguished from other parts of the Atlantic Ocean by its characteristic brown ''[[Sargassum]]'' seaweed and often calm blue water.<ref name=Stow/>


The sea is bounded on the west by the [[Gulf Stream]], on the north by the [[North Atlantic Current]], on the east by the [[Canary Current]], and on the south by the [[North Equatorial Current|North Atlantic Equatorial Current]], the four together forming a clockwise-circulating system of ocean currents termed the [[North Atlantic Gyre]]. It lies between 20° to 35° N and 40 and 70 W and is approximately {{convert|1100|km}} wide by {{convert|3200|km}} long.<ref>{{cite web|title=Sargasso Sea|url=https://www.oceanfdn.org/resources/sargasso-sea|website=oceanfdn.org|publisher=The Ocean Foundation|access-date=27 June 2017|date=14 September 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Weatheritt|first=Les|title=Your First Atlantic Crossing: A Planning Guide for Passagemakers|date=2000|publisher=Adlard Coles Nautical|location=London|isbn=9781408188088|edition=4th|url=https://books.google.com/books?isbn=1408188082|access-date=27 June 2017}}</ref> [[Bermuda]] is near the western fringes of the sea.<ref>{{cite web|last=Webster|first=George|title=Mysterious waters: from the Bermuda Triangle to the Devil's Sea|url=http://www.cnn.com/2011/TRAVEL/05/31/sea.legends.bermuda.triangle/index.html|publisher=CNN|access-date=27 June 2017|date=31 May 2011}}</ref> No analogous area is found in the South Atlantic Ocean.{{Citation needed|date=July 2021}}
The sea is bounded on the west by the [[Gulf Stream]], on the north by the [[North Atlantic Current]], on the east by the [[Canary Current]], and on the south by the [[North Equatorial Current|North Atlantic Equatorial Current]], the four together forming a clockwise-circulating system of ocean currents termed the [[North Atlantic Gyre]]. It lies between 20° to 35° N and 40 and 70 W and is approximately {{convert|1100|km}} wide by {{convert|3200|km}} long. [[Bermuda]] is near the western fringes of the sea.


All of the currents deposit the marine plants and refuse which they are carrying into this sea, yet the ocean water in the Sargasso Sea is distinctive for its deep blue color and exceptional clarity, with underwater visibility of up to 61&nbsp;m (200&nbsp;ft).<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Sargasso Sea|encyclopedia=World Book|volume=15|publisher=[[Field Enterprises Educational Corp.]]|series=1958}}</ref> It is also a body of water that has captured the public imagination, and so is seen in a wide variety of literary and artistic works and in popular culture.<ref name=heller>{{Cite book|last=Heller|first=Ruth|title=A Sea Within a Sea: Secrets of the Sargasso|year=2000|publisher=Price Stern Sloan|isbn=978-0-448-42417-0|url=https://archive.org/details/seawithinseasecr00hell}}</ref>
All of the currents deposit the marine plants and refuse which they are carrying into this sea, yet the ocean water in the Sargasso Sea is distinctive for its deep blue color and exceptional clarity, with underwater visibility of up to 61&nbsp;m (200&nbsp;ft).<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Sargasso Sea|encyclopedia=World Book|volume=15|publisher=[[Field Enterprises Educational Corp.]]|series=1958}}</ref> It is also a body of water that has captured the public imagination, and so is seen in a wide variety of literary and artistic works and in popular culture.<ref name=heller>{{Cite book|last=Heller|first=Ruth|title=A Sea Within a Sea: Secrets of the Sargasso|year=2000|publisher=Price Stern Sloan|isbn=978-0-448-42417-0|url=https://archive.org/details/seawithinseasecr00hell}}</ref>


==History==
==History==
The first known written account of the Sargasso Sea dates to [[Christopher Columbus]] in 1492, who wrote about seaweed that he feared would trap his ship and potentially hide shallow waters that ran them aground, as well as a lack of wind that he feared would trap them.{{Sfn|Sargasso Sea Alliance|2011|p=10}}
The naming of the Sargasso Sea for its ''[[Sargassum]]'' seaweed dates from the early 15th-century [[Kingdom of Portugal|Portuguese]] explorations of the [[Azores Islands]] and of the large "[[volta do mar]]" (the North Atlantic gyre), around and west of the archipelago, where the seaweed was often present.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Sargasso Sea|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/blueplanet/infobursts/sargasso_bg.shtml|work=BBC – Homepage|publisher=BBC|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110525103033/http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/blueplanet/infobursts/sargasso_bg.shtml|access-date=6 June 2011|archive-date=25 May 2011}}</ref> However, the sea may have been known to earlier [[sailor|mariners]], as a poem by the late 4th-century author [[Avienius|Rufus Festus Avienius]] describes a portion of the Atlantic as being covered with seaweed, citing a now-lost account by the 5th-century BC [[Carthage|Carthaginian]] [[Himilco]] the Navigator.<ref>{{cite book|author=Various Authors|title=The Historians' History of the World in Twenty-Five Volumes: Israel, India, Persia, Phoenicia, Minor Nations of Western Asia, Vol. II|date=2016|publisher=Library of Alexandria|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sPFADAAAQBAJ|isbn=9781465608017}}</ref>


According to the Muslim cartographer [[Muhammad al-Idrisi]], the ''Mugharrarūn'' ({{Lang-ar|المغررون}}, "the adventurers") sent by the [[Almoravid dynasty|Almoravid]] sultan [[Ali ibn Yusuf]] (1084–1143), led by his admiral [[Ahmad ibn Umar]], reached a part of the ocean covered by [[seaweed]],<ref>{{Cite book|last=الإدريسي|first=أبي عبد الله محمد بن محمد/الشريف|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qJzODwAAQBAJ&pg=PA152 |title=نزهة المشتاق في اختراق الآفاق|date=1 January 2020|publisher=Dar Al Kotob Al Ilmiyah دار الكتب العلمية|isbn=978-2-7451-6563-3|language=ar}}</ref> identified by some as the Sargasso Sea.<ref>Fromherz, Allen James, ‘The Near West’, page 133, 2016, Edinburgh University Press. {{ISBN|9781474426404}}</ref>
The sea may have been known to earlier [[sailor|mariners]], as a poem by the late 4th-century author [[Avienius]] describes a portion of the Atlantic as being covered with seaweed and windless, citing a now-lost account by the 5th-century BC [[Carthage|Carthaginian]] [[Himilco]] the Navigator. Columbus himself was aware of this account and thought Himilco had reached the Sargasso Sea, as did several other explorers. However, modern scholars consider this unlikely.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Akyeampong|first=Emmanuel Kwaku|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=39JMAgAAQBAJ|title=Dictionary of African Biography|last2=Gates|first2=Henry Louis Jr.|date=2012-02-02|publisher=OUP USA|isbn=978-0-19-538207-5|pages=70|language=en}}</ref> According to the Muslim cartographer [[Muhammad al-Idrisi]], the ''Mugharrarūn'' ({{Lang-ar|المغررون}}, "the adventurers") sent by the [[Almoravid dynasty|Almoravid]] sultan [[Ali ibn Yusuf]] (1084–1143), led by his admiral [[Ahmad ibn Umar]], reached a part of the ocean covered by [[seaweed]],<ref>{{Cite book|last=الإدريسي|first=أبي عبد الله محمد بن محمد/الشريف|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qJzODwAAQBAJ&pg=PA152 |title=نزهة المشتاق في اختراق الآفاق|date=1 January 2020|publisher=Dar Al Kotob Al Ilmiyah دار الكتب العلمية|isbn=978-2-7451-6563-3|language=ar}}</ref> identified by some as the Sargasso Sea.<ref>Fromherz, Allen James, ‘The Near West’, page 133, 2016, Edinburgh University Press. {{ISBN|9781474426404}}</ref>


In 1609 the ''[[Sea Venture]]'' was blown to the shore of Bermuda. The sea has also been the site of whaling and fishing.{{Sfn|Sargasso Sea Alliance|2011|p=11}}
In 1846, [[Edward Forbes]] hypothesized a post-[[Miocene]] land mass extending westward from Europe into the Atlantic:

{{quote|text=If this land existed it did not extend to America (for the fossils of the Miocene of America are representative & not identical): where then was the edge or coastline of it, Atlantic-wards? Look at the form & constancy of the great [[fucus]]-bank & consider that it is a Sargassum bank.|author=Edward Forbes|source=from the ''Darwin Correspondence Project''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/entry-956|title=Darwin Correspondence Project|work=darwinproject.ac.uk|access-date=7 January 2017}}</ref>}}
The 1920-1922 [[Dana expeditions]], led by [[Johannes Schmidt (biologist)|Johannes Schmidt]], determined that the [[European eel]]'s breeding grounds were in the Sargasso Sea.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Nast|first=Condé|date=2020-05-14|title=Where Do Eels Come From?|url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2020/05/25/where-do-eels-come-from|access-date=2021-10-02|website=The New Yorker|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Benson|first=Keith Rodney|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kfv059OL6kQC&pg=PA196&dq=%22dana+expedition%22+sargasso+sea&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwio_bHhwarzAhXOmeAKHVPZAbIQ6AF6BAgLEAI#v=onepage&q=%22dana%20expedition%22%20sargasso%20sea&f=false|title=Oceanographic History: The Pacific and Beyond|last2=Benson|first2=Keith R.|last3=Rehbock|first3=Philip F.|date=2002|publisher=University of Washington Press|isbn=978-0-295-98239-7|pages=196|language=en}}</ref> The sea has played a role in a number of other pioneering research efforts, including [[William Beebe]] and [[Otis Barton]]'s 1932 dive where they conducted observations of animals and radio broadcasts, [[John C. Swallow|John Swallow]]'s work on the [[Float (oceanographic instrument platform)|Swallow float]] in the late 1950s, the discovery of ''[[Prochlorococcus]]'' by a team of researchers in the 1980s, and various oceanographic data gathering programs such as those of [[Henry Stommel]].{{Sfn|Sargasso Sea Alliance|2011|p=28}}

In July 1969, British businessman and amateur sailor [[Donald Crowhurst]] disappeared after his yacht became mired in the Sargasso Sea. He had been competing in the [[Sunday Times Golden Globe Race|''Sunday Times'' Golden Globe Race]], a [[Single-handed sailing|single-handed]], [[Circumnavigation|round-the-world]] [[Yacht racing|yacht race]] when his poorly-prepared boat began to take on water. He abandoned his circumnavigation attempt, but reported false positions by radio in an attempt to give the impression that he was still participating. Eventually, Crowhurst wound up drifting in the Sargasso Sea, where he deteriorated psychologically, filling his logbooks with [[Metaphysics|metaphysical]] speculation and delusional comments. His last entry was July 1, and his yacht was found unoccupied and drifting on July 10. It is unclear whether his death came as the result of suicide or misadventure.<ref>{{Cite web|last=McCrum|first=Robert|date=2009-04-04|title=Deep water|url=http://www.theguardian.com/uk/2009/apr/05/donald-crowhurst-lone-sailor|url-status=live|access-date=2021-09-30|website=[[The Guardian]]|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Proudfoot|first=Shannon|date=2016|title=Inside Donald Crowhurst's heartbreaking round-the-world hoax|url=https://www.sportsnet.ca/more/big-read-donald-crowhursts-heartbreaking-round-world-hoax/|url-status=live|access-date=2021-09-30|website=[[Sportsnet]]}}</ref>

== Boundaries ==
The sea is bounded on the west by the [[Gulf Stream]], on the north by the [[North Atlantic Current]], on the east by the [[Canary Current]], and on the south by the [[North Equatorial Current|North Atlantic Equatorial Current]], the four together forming a clockwise-circulating system of ocean currents termed the [[North Atlantic Gyre]]. It lies between 20° to 35° N and 40 and 70 W and is approximately {{convert|1100|km}} wide by {{convert|3200|km}} long.<ref>{{cite web|date=14 September 2015|title=Sargasso Sea|url=https://www.oceanfdn.org/resources/sargasso-sea|access-date=27 June 2017|website=oceanfdn.org|publisher=The Ocean Foundation}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Weatheritt|first=Les|url=https://books.google.com/books?isbn=1408188082|title=Your First Atlantic Crossing: A Planning Guide for Passagemakers|date=2000|publisher=Adlard Coles Nautical|isbn=9781408188088|edition=4th|location=London|access-date=27 June 2017}}</ref> [[Bermuda]] is near the western fringes of the sea.<ref>{{cite web|last=Webster|first=George|date=31 May 2011|title=Mysterious waters: from the Bermuda Triangle to the Devil's Sea|url=http://www.cnn.com/2011/TRAVEL/05/31/sea.legends.bermuda.triangle/index.html|access-date=27 June 2017|publisher=CNN}}</ref>

Because the Sargasso Sea is bordered by oceanic currents, its precise borders may change. The Canary Current in particular is widely variable, and often the line utilized is one west of the [[Mid-Atlantic Ridge]]. A 2011 report based the sea's boundaries on several variables including currents, presence of seaweed, and the topography of the ocean floor, and determined that the specific boundaries of the sea were "between 22°–38°N, 76°–43°W and centred on 30°N and 60°W" for a total of around {{Convert|4,163,499|km2}}.{{Sfn|Sargasso Sea Alliance|2011|p=7}}


==Ecology==
==Ecology==
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The Sargasso Sea is home to [[seaweed]] of the genus ''[[Sargassum]]'', which floats en masse on the surface. The sargassum is not a threat to shipping, and historic incidents of sailing ships being trapped there are due to the often calm winds of the [[horse latitudes]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.straightdope.com/mailbag/msargasso.html|title=Sargasso|publisher=Straight Dope|date=August 2002}}</ref>
The Sargasso Sea is home to [[seaweed]] of the genus ''[[Sargassum]]'', which floats en masse on the surface. The sargassum is not a threat to shipping, and historic incidents of sailing ships being trapped there are due to the often calm winds of the [[horse latitudes]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.straightdope.com/mailbag/msargasso.html|title=Sargasso|publisher=Straight Dope|date=August 2002}}</ref>


The Sargasso Sea plays a role in the [[Fish migration|migration]] of catadromous eel species such as the [[European eel]], the [[American eel]], and the [[American conger]] eel. The [[leptocephalus|larvae]] of these species hatch within the sea, and as they grow they travel to Europe or the East Coast of North America. Later in life, the matured eel migrates back to the Sargasso Sea to spawn and lay [[egg (biology)|eggs]]. It is also believed that after hatching, young [[loggerhead sea turtle]]s use currents such as the [[Gulf Stream]] to travel to the Sargasso Sea, where they use the sargassum as cover from predators until they are mature.<ref>{{Cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/7477519.stm | work=BBC News|title=Turtles return home after UK stay|date=30 June 2008|access-date=23 May 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-26435342|work=BBC News|title=Satellites track turtle 'lost years'|date=5 March 2014|access-date=5 March 2014}}</ref> The [[sargassum fish]] is a species of [[frogfish]] specially adapted to blend in among the sargassum seaweed.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2019/06/sargasso-sea-north-atlantic-gyre-supports-ocean-life/|title=In the Sargasso Sea, life depends on floating sargassum seaweed|date=15 May 2019}}</ref>
The Sargasso Sea plays a role in the [[Fish migration|migration]] of catadromous eel species such as the European eel, the [[American eel]], and the [[American conger]] eel. The [[leptocephalus|larvae]] of these species hatch within the sea, and as they grow they travel to Europe or the East Coast of North America. Later in life, the matured eel migrates back to the Sargasso Sea to spawn and lay [[egg (biology)|eggs]]. It is also believed that after hatching, young [[loggerhead sea turtle]]s use currents such as the [[Gulf Stream]] to travel to the Sargasso Sea, where they use the sargassum as cover from predators until they are mature.<ref>{{Cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/7477519.stm | work=BBC News|title=Turtles return home after UK stay|date=30 June 2008|access-date=23 May 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-26435342|work=BBC News|title=Satellites track turtle 'lost years'|date=5 March 2014|access-date=5 March 2014}}</ref> The [[sargassum fish]] is a species of [[frogfish]] specially adapted to blend in among the sargassum seaweed.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2019/06/sargasso-sea-north-atlantic-gyre-supports-ocean-life/|title=In the Sargasso Sea, life depends on floating sargassum seaweed|date=15 May 2019}}</ref>


In the early 2000s, the Sargasso Sea was sampled as part of the [[Global Ocean Sampling Expedition|Global Ocean Sampling]] survey, to evaluate its diversity of microbial life through [[metagenomics]]. Contrary to previous theories, results indicated the area has a wide variety of [[prokaryote|prokaryotic]] life.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Environmental genome shotgun sequencing of the Sargasso Sea|pmid=15001713|doi=10.1126/science.1093857|volume=304|issue=5667|date=April 2004|journal=Science|pages=66–74|last1=Venter|first1=JC|last2=Remington|first2=K|last3=Heidelberg|first3=JF|display-authors=etal |citeseerx=10.1.1.124.1840|s2cid=1454587}}</ref>
In the early 2000s, the Sargasso Sea was sampled as part of the [[Global Ocean Sampling Expedition|Global Ocean Sampling]] survey, to evaluate its diversity of microbial life through [[metagenomics]]. Contrary to previous theories, results indicated the area has a wide variety of [[prokaryote|prokaryotic]] life.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Environmental genome shotgun sequencing of the Sargasso Sea|pmid=15001713|doi=10.1126/science.1093857|volume=304|issue=5667|date=April 2004|journal=Science|pages=66–74|last1=Venter|first1=JC|last2=Remington|first2=K|last3=Heidelberg|first3=JF|display-authors=etal |citeseerx=10.1.1.124.1840|s2cid=1454587}}</ref>


==Pollution==
== Threats ==
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Owing to surface currents, the Sargasso accumulates a high concentration of non-[[biodegradable plastic]] waste.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.greenpeace.org/international/campaigns/oceans/pollution/trash-vortex|title=The Trash Vortex (2008)|access-date=20 April 2008|publisher=Greenpeace|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090111010218/http://www.greenpeace.org/international/campaigns/oceans/pollution/trash-vortex|archive-date=11 January 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.greenpeace.org/archive-international/en/campaigns/oceans/fit-for-the-future/pollution/trash-vortex/|title=The trash vortex (2014)|publisher=Greenpeace}}</ref>
The area contains the huge [[North Atlantic garbage patch]].<ref>{{cite web|last1=Wilson|first1=Stiv J.|title=Atlantic Garbage Patch|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/stiv-j-wilson/atlantic-garbage-patch-ne_b_539468.html|publisher=HuffPost|access-date=27 June 2017|date=16 June 2010}}</ref>


===Pollution===
⚫
Several nations and nongovernmental organizations have united to protect the Sargasso Sea.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Shaw|first=David|title=Protecting the Sargasso Sea|journal=Science & Diplomacy|date=27 May 2014|volume=3|issue=2|url=http://www.sciencediplomacy.org/letter-field/2014/protecting-sargasso-sea}}</ref>
⚫
Owing to surface currents, the Sargasso accumulates a high concentration of non-[[biodegradable plastic]] waste.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.greenpeace.org/international/campaigns/oceans/pollution/trash-vortex|title=The Trash Vortex (2008)|access-date=20 April 2008|publisher=Greenpeace|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090111010218/http://www.greenpeace.org/international/campaigns/oceans/pollution/trash-vortex|archive-date=11 January 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.greenpeace.org/archive-international/en/campaigns/oceans/fit-for-the-future/pollution/trash-vortex/|title=The trash vortex (2014)|publisher=Greenpeace}}</ref> The area contains the huge [[North Atlantic garbage patch]].<ref>{{cite web|last1=Wilson|first1=Stiv J.|title=Atlantic Garbage Patch|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/stiv-j-wilson/atlantic-garbage-patch-ne_b_539468.html|publisher=HuffPost|access-date=27 June 2017|date=16 June 2010}}</ref>
These organizations include the Sargasso Sea Commission<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sargassoalliance.org|title=Sargasso Sea Commission|work=sargassoalliance.org|access-date=7 January 2017}}</ref>

⚫
Several nations and nongovernmental organizations have united to protect the Sargasso Sea.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Shaw|first=David|title=Protecting the Sargasso Sea|journal=Science & Diplomacy|date=27 May 2014|volume=3|issue=2|url=http://www.sciencediplomacy.org/letter-field/2014/protecting-sargasso-sea}}</ref> These organizations include the Sargasso Sea Commission<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sargassoalliance.org|title=Sargasso Sea Commission|work=sargassoalliance.org|access-date=7 January 2017}}</ref>
established 11 March 2014 by the governments of the Azores (Portugal), Bermuda (United Kingdom), Monaco, the United Kingdom and the United States.
established 11 March 2014 by the governments of the Azores (Portugal), Bermuda (United Kingdom), Monaco, the United Kingdom and the United States.


Bacteria that consume plastic have been found in the plastic-polluted waters of the Sargasso Sea; however, it is unknown whether these bacteria ultimately clean up poisons or simply spread them elsewhere in the marine microbial ecosystem. Plastic debris can absorb toxic chemicals from [[marine pollution|ocean pollution]], potentially poisoning anything that eats it.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.nature.com/news/2011/110328/full/news.2011.191.html|title=Marine microbes digest plastic|author=Gwyneth Dickey Zaikab|journal=Nature|date=March 2011|doi=10.1038/news.2011.191}}</ref>
Bacteria that consume plastic have been found in the plastic-polluted waters of the Sargasso Sea; however, it is unknown whether these bacteria ultimately clean up poisons or simply spread them elsewhere in the marine microbial ecosystem. Plastic debris can absorb toxic chemicals from [[marine pollution|ocean pollution]], potentially poisoning anything that eats it.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.nature.com/news/2011/110328/full/news.2011.191.html|title=Marine microbes digest plastic|author=Gwyneth Dickey Zaikab|journal=Nature|date=March 2011|doi=10.1038/news.2011.191}}</ref>

=== Others ===
Some human activity in the Sargasso Sea has negatively impacted it, such as over-fishing and shipping.{{Sfn|Sargasso Sea Alliance|2011|p=33}}


==Depictions in popular culture==
==Depictions in popular culture==
The Sargasso Sea is often portrayed in literature and the media as an area of mystery.<ref name=heller/>
The Sargasso Sea is often portrayed in literature and the media as an area of mystery.<ref name=heller/> It is often depicted in fiction as a dangerous area where ships are mired in weed for centuries, unable to escape.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ryther|first=John H.|date=1956|title=The Sargasso Sea|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24943833|journal=Scientific American|volume=194|issue=1|pages=98–108|issn=0036-8733}}</ref>


=== Literature ===
[[Ezra Pound]]'s "Portrait d'une Femme" opens with the line: "Your mind and you are our Sargasso Sea", suggesting that the woman addressed in the poem is a repository of trivia and disconnected facts.
[[Ezra Pound]]'s "Portrait d'une Femme" opens with the line: "Your mind and you are our Sargasso Sea", suggesting that the woman addressed in the poem is a repository of trivia and disconnected facts.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Roberts|first=Brian Russell|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2XrbDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT268&dq=%22Your+mind+and+you+are+our+Sargasso+Sea%22&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjcuZ_6ybHzAhXETd8KHdjCDQMQ6AF6BAgHEAI#v=onepage&q=%22Your%20mind%20and%20you%20are%20our%20Sargasso%20Sea%22&f=false|title=Archipelagic American Studies|last2=Stephens|first2=Michelle Ann|date=2017-05-18|publisher=Duke University Press|isbn=978-0-8223-7320-9|language=en}}</ref>


The Sargasso Sea features in classic fantasy stories by [[William Hope Hodgson]], such as his novel ''[[The Boats of the "Glen Carrig"]]'' (1907), [[Victor Appleton]]'s [[Don Sturdy]] novel ''Don Sturdy in the Port of Lost Ships: Or, Adrift in the Sargasso Sea'', and several related [[Sargasso Sea Stories (William Hope Hodgson)|short stories]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hodgeson|first1=William Hope|title=The Collected Fiction of William Hope Hodgson: Boats of Glen Carrig & Other Nautical Adventures|date=2011|publisher=Night Shade Books|location=New York|isbn=978-1-892389-39-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kLqYDAAAQBAJ}}</ref> [[Jules Verne]]'s ''[[Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea]]s'' describes the Sargasso Sea and gives an account of its formation.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Verne|first=Jules|translator-last=Butcher|translator-first=William|title=20,000 Leagues Under the Seas|url=https://archive.org/details/twentythousandle00vern_1|year=1870|edition=2001|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0192828392}}</ref>
The Sargasso Sea features in classic fantasy stories by [[William Hope Hodgson]], such as his novel ''[[The Boats of the "Glen Carrig"]]'' (1907), [[Victor Appleton]]'s [[Don Sturdy]] novel ''Don Sturdy in the Port of Lost Ships: Or, Adrift in the Sargasso Sea'', and several related [[Sargasso Sea Stories (William Hope Hodgson)|short stories]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hodgeson|first1=William Hope|title=The Collected Fiction of William Hope Hodgson: Boats of Glen Carrig & Other Nautical Adventures|date=2011|publisher=Night Shade Books|location=New York|isbn=978-1-892389-39-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kLqYDAAAQBAJ}}</ref> [[Jules Verne]]'s ''[[Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea]]s'' describes the Sargasso Sea and gives an account of its formation.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Verne|first=Jules|translator-last=Butcher|translator-first=William|title=20,000 Leagues Under the Seas|url=https://archive.org/details/twentythousandle00vern_1|year=1870|edition=2001|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0192828392}}</ref> [[Thomas Allibone Janvier]]'s 1898 novel is titled ''[[In the Sargasso Sea]]''.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KbU6AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA243&dq=in+the+sargasso+sea+janvier&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjX9NfS5rXzAhWirHIEHbASDkg4ChDoAXoECAMQAg#v=onepage&q=in%20the%20sargasso%20sea%20janvier&f=false|title=The Literary World: A Monthly Review of Current Literature|date=1898|publisher=S. R. Crocker|pages=243|language=en}}</ref>


''[[Wide Sargasso Sea]]'' (1966) by [[Jean Rhys]] is a rewriting of Charlotte Brontë's ''[[Jane Eyre]]'' from [[Bertha Mason]]'s point of view.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jolley|first=Susan Arpajian|date=2005|title=Teaching "Wide Sargasso Sea" in New Jersey|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/30046421|journal=The English Journal|volume=94|issue=3|pages=61–66|doi=10.2307/30046421|issn=0013-8274}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gilchrist|first=Jennifer|date=2012|title=Women, Slavery, and the Problem of Freedom in Wide Sargasso Sea|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24246943|journal=Twentieth Century Literature|volume=58|issue=3|pages=462–494|issn=0041-462X}}</ref>
The Sargasso Sea is frequently (but erroneously) depicted in fiction as a dangerous area where ships are mired in weed for centuries, unable to escape. The [[Doc Savage]] novel ''The Sargasso Ogre'', published in 1933, takes place in the Sargasso where descendants of Elizabethan pirates still live. A similar story appears in ''[[Green Lantern]]'' (Vol.1) #3 (Spring 1942) "The Living Graveyard of the Sea", which refers to it as a supposedly mythical place. Here the descendants of many different kinds of ships live in utopian harmony, until they are attacked by [[Nazi]]s who wish to use it to their advantage. The premiere episode of ''[[Jonny Quest]]'', "Mystery of the Lizard Men", involves a spy ring operating in the Sargasso, underneath the (nonexistent) derelict ships. [[Hammer Film Productions]]' 1968 film ''[[The Lost Continent (1968 film)|The Lost Continent]]'' (based on a 1938 [[Dennis Wheatley]] novel, ''Uncharted Seas''), depicts travelers lost in a Sargasso Sea infested with carnivorous seaweed, giant crustaceans, and descendants of Spanish conquistadores ruling over other trapped people, descendants of those mired in the weed centuries before. These depictions are parodied in ''[[The Venture Bros.]]'' season 1 episode "Ghosts of the Sargasso", set in the overlapping areas of the Sargasso Sea and the [[Bermuda Triangle]], which depicts supposed pirates whose ship was stuck in the sargassum for a decade and the ghost of the pilot of an experimental aircraft which crashed into the sea in 1969.<ref>{{Cite episode|title=Ghosts of the Sargasso|episode-link=List of the Venture Bros. episodes|series=[[The Venture Bros.]]|network=[[Adult Swim]]|date=11 September 2004|season=1|number=6}}</ref> The Sargasso Sea is a key location in ''Indiana Jones and the Sargasso Pirates'', a 1995 comic book limited series from Dark Horse. The adventurer, having been lost at sea, washes up at a "city" of derelict ships from throughout maritime history, trapped and buoyed by dense seaweed. The ships are populated by pirates and the waters swarming with eels.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.darkhorse.com/Comics/92-156/Indiana-Jones-and-the-Sargasso-Pirates-1-of-4|title = Indiana Jones and the Sargasso Pirates #1 (Of 4) :: Profile :: Dark Horse Comics}}</ref>


=== Music ===
''[[Wide Sargasso Sea]]'' (1966) by [[Jean Rhys]] is a rewriting of Charlotte Brontë's ''[[Jane Eyre]]'' from [[Bertha Mason]]'s point of view.<ref>Jean Rhys, ''Wide Sargasso Sea'' (1966)</ref>
Guitarists [[John Abercrombie (guitarist)|John Abercrombie]] and [[Ralph Towner]] released an album titled ''[[Sargasso Sea (John Abercrombie and Ralph Towner album)|Sargasso Sea]]'' in 1976.<ref name="Allmusic">Nastos, M. G. [http://www.allmusic.com/album/sargasso-sea-mw0000198776 Allmusic Review] accessed September 6, 2011</ref>


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== References ==
The Sargasso Sea is referenced in the [[Dead Can Dance]] song "All in Good Time" from their 2012 album ''[[Anastasis (album)|Anastasis]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://genius.com/Dead-can-dance-all-in-good-time-lyrics|title=Dead Can Dance – All in Good Time}}</ref>
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{{Reflist|2}}


== Bibliography ==
The Sargasso Sea is referenced in the refrain of [[Andrew Bird]]'s April 2016 song "Left-Handed Kisses" (featuring singer [[Fiona Apple]]).<ref>{{Citation|last=andrewbirdmusic|title=Andrew Bird – Left Handed Kisses (ft. Fiona Apple) [OFFICIAL VIDEO]|date=14 March 2016|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RZwtWExDmoI|access-date=30 December 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.straitstimes.com/lifestyle/entertainment/a-sea-of-love-then-a-hot-mess|title=A sea of love, then a hot mess|author=Yeow Kai Chai|date=6 April 2016|work=The Straits Times|access-date=30 December 2017}}</ref>


* {{Cite web|date=2011|title=The Protection and Management of the Sargasso Sea|url=http://www.sargassoseacommission.org/storage/documents/Sargasso.Report.9.12.pdf|url-status=live|website=Sargasso Sea Alliance|isbn=978-0-9847520-0-3|ref={{harvid|Sargasso Sea Alliance|2011}}}}
Writer [[Charles Fort]] hypothesized about the existence of what he called the "Super-Sargasso Sea", a place where all lost things go. The pop-culture wiki [[TV Tropes]] recognizes a trope that takes this same name.

One-man band [[Lemon Demon]] also refers to the Super-Sargasso Sea in the song "Touch-Tone Telephone", released on his 2016 album ''[[Spirit Phone]]''.<ref>{{cite web |last=Demon |first=Lemon |title=Touch Tone Telephone |url=https://lemondemon.bandcamp.com/track/touch-tone-telephone |website=Bandcamp |publisher=Bandcamp |access-date=27 January 2020 |language=en}}</ref>

The Sargasso Sea is referenced in the 2019 episode "Silky Love"<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kielty |first1=Matt |last2=Bressler |first2=Becca |title=Silky Love – Radiolab |url=https://www.wnycstudios.org/podcasts/radiolab/articles/silky-love |website=WNYC Studios |publisher=WNYC Studios |access-date=7 January 2020 |language=en}}</ref> of the [[Radiolab]] podcast as the location where eels migrate and procreate.

The Sargasso Sea is used as an analogy in the novel ''[[Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance]]'', by [[Robert M. Pirsig]], by the main character when describing how rhetoric as a discipline can be "a huge Sargasso of stagnated logic".

The video for the 2007 song "[[Dashboard (song)|Dashboard]]" by [[Modest Mouse]] features the Sargasso Sea on a map and as the purported scene of events depicted in the video.

Sargasso Sea is also the title of an album by guitarists John Abercrombie and Ralph Towner that was released by ECM in 1976 (ECM 1080)

DC Comic's [[Batman (comic book)|''Batman'' (Vol.1) #122]] (originally published in March 1959) has a secondary story "Prisoners of the Sargasso Sea" by [[Bill Finger]]. In the story, [[Batman]] and [[Robin (character)|Robin]] chase a modern-day pirate into the Sargasso Sea. The story tells that others have been trapped for centuries and kept alive by a "strange age-defying gas" produced by the seaweed. Batman and Robin escape in the Batplane after making repairs.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.comics.org/issue/14906/#120797|publisher=Comics.org|title=Batman #122 (March 1959)|accessdate=April 1, 2021}}</ref> The comic was re-printed as a promotion for [[Pizza Hut]] in 1977.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.comics.org/issue/297509/|accessdate=April 1, 2021|publisher=Comics.org|title=Batman #122 Pizza Hut Collectors' Edition Vol. 1 (1977)}}</ref>

In the 10th episode of the anime ''[[Star Blazers: Space Battleship Yamato 2199]]'', titled "Graveyard of the Universe", the captain refers to an inter-dimensional rift that traps ships as the "Stargasso Sea of space".

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==References==
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{{Reflist|2}}


==External links==
==External links==

Revision as of 12:38, 6 October 2021

For other uses, see Sargasso Sea (disambiguation).
Not to be confused with Saragossa.

28°N 66°W / 28°N 66°W / 28; -66

Map of the Sargasso Sea
The Sargasso Sea in the North Atlantic is bounded by the Gulf Stream on the west, the North Atlantic Current on the north, the Canary Current on the east, and the North Equatorial Current on the south.

The Sargasso Sea (/sɑːrˈɡæsoʊ/) is a region of the Atlantic Ocean bounded by four currents forming an ocean gyre.[1] Unlike all other regions called seas, it has no land boundaries.[2][3][4] It is distinguished from other parts of the Atlantic Ocean by its characteristic brown Sargassum seaweed and often calm blue water.[1]

The sea is bounded on the west by the Gulf Stream, on the north by the North Atlantic Current, on the east by the Canary Current, and on the south by the North Atlantic Equatorial Current, the four together forming a clockwise-circulating system of ocean currents termed the North Atlantic Gyre. It lies between 20° to 35° N and 40 and 70 W and is approximately 1,100 kilometres (680 mi) wide by 3,200 kilometres (2,000 mi) long. Bermuda is near the western fringes of the sea.

All of the currents deposit the marine plants and refuse which they are carrying into this sea, yet the ocean water in the Sargasso Sea is distinctive for its deep blue color and exceptional clarity, with underwater visibility of up to 61 m (200 ft).[5] It is also a body of water that has captured the public imagination, and so is seen in a wide variety of literary and artistic works and in popular culture.[6]

History

The first known written account of the Sargasso Sea dates to Christopher Columbus in 1492, who wrote about seaweed that he feared would trap his ship and potentially hide shallow waters that ran them aground, as well as a lack of wind that he feared would trap them.[7]

The sea may have been known to earlier mariners, as a poem by the late 4th-century author Avienius describes a portion of the Atlantic as being covered with seaweed and windless, citing a now-lost account by the 5th-century BC Carthaginian Himilco the Navigator. Columbus himself was aware of this account and thought Himilco had reached the Sargasso Sea, as did several other explorers. However, modern scholars consider this unlikely.[8] According to the Muslim cartographer Muhammad al-Idrisi, the Mugharrarūn (Arabic: المغررون, "the adventurers") sent by the Almoravid sultan Ali ibn Yusuf (1084–1143), led by his admiral Ahmad ibn Umar, reached a part of the ocean covered by seaweed,[9] identified by some as the Sargasso Sea.[10]

In 1609 the Sea Venture was blown to the shore of Bermuda. The sea has also been the site of whaling and fishing.[11]

The 1920-1922 Dana expeditions, led by Johannes Schmidt, determined that the European eel's breeding grounds were in the Sargasso Sea.[12][13] The sea has played a role in a number of other pioneering research efforts, including William Beebe and Otis Barton's 1932 dive where they conducted observations of animals and radio broadcasts, John Swallow's work on the Swallow float in the late 1950s, the discovery of Prochlorococcus by a team of researchers in the 1980s, and various oceanographic data gathering programs such as those of Henry Stommel.[14]

In July 1969, British businessman and amateur sailor Donald Crowhurst disappeared after his yacht became mired in the Sargasso Sea. He had been competing in the Sunday Times Golden Globe Race, a single-handed, round-the-world yacht race when his poorly-prepared boat began to take on water. He abandoned his circumnavigation attempt, but reported false positions by radio in an attempt to give the impression that he was still participating. Eventually, Crowhurst wound up drifting in the Sargasso Sea, where he deteriorated psychologically, filling his logbooks with metaphysical speculation and delusional comments. His last entry was July 1, and his yacht was found unoccupied and drifting on July 10. It is unclear whether his death came as the result of suicide or misadventure.[15][16]

Boundaries

The sea is bounded on the west by the Gulf Stream, on the north by the North Atlantic Current, on the east by the Canary Current, and on the south by the North Atlantic Equatorial Current, the four together forming a clockwise-circulating system of ocean currents termed the North Atlantic Gyre. It lies between 20° to 35° N and 40 and 70 W and is approximately 1,100 kilometres (680 mi) wide by 3,200 kilometres (2,000 mi) long.[17][18] Bermuda is near the western fringes of the sea.[19]

Because the Sargasso Sea is bordered by oceanic currents, its precise borders may change. The Canary Current in particular is widely variable, and often the line utilized is one west of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. A 2011 report based the sea's boundaries on several variables including currents, presence of seaweed, and the topography of the ocean floor, and determined that the specific boundaries of the sea were "between 22°–38°N, 76°–43°W and centred on 30°N and 60°W" for a total of around 4,163,499 square kilometres (1,607,536 sq mi).[20]

Ecology

Lines of sargassum in the Sargasso Sea

The Sargasso Sea is home to seaweed of the genus Sargassum, which floats en masse on the surface. The sargassum is not a threat to shipping, and historic incidents of sailing ships being trapped there are due to the often calm winds of the horse latitudes.[21]

The Sargasso Sea plays a role in the migration of catadromous eel species such as the European eel, the American eel, and the American conger eel. The larvae of these species hatch within the sea, and as they grow they travel to Europe or the East Coast of North America. Later in life, the matured eel migrates back to the Sargasso Sea to spawn and lay eggs. It is also believed that after hatching, young loggerhead sea turtles use currents such as the Gulf Stream to travel to the Sargasso Sea, where they use the sargassum as cover from predators until they are mature.[22][23] The sargassum fish is a species of frogfish specially adapted to blend in among the sargassum seaweed.[24]

In the early 2000s, the Sargasso Sea was sampled as part of the Global Ocean Sampling survey, to evaluate its diversity of microbial life through metagenomics. Contrary to previous theories, results indicated the area has a wide variety of prokaryotic life.[25]

Threats

Pollution

Owing to surface currents, the Sargasso accumulates a high concentration of non-biodegradable plastic waste.[26][27] The area contains the huge North Atlantic garbage patch.[28]

Several nations and nongovernmental organizations have united to protect the Sargasso Sea.[29] These organizations include the Sargasso Sea Commission[30] established 11 March 2014 by the governments of the Azores (Portugal), Bermuda (United Kingdom), Monaco, the United Kingdom and the United States.

Bacteria that consume plastic have been found in the plastic-polluted waters of the Sargasso Sea; however, it is unknown whether these bacteria ultimately clean up poisons or simply spread them elsewhere in the marine microbial ecosystem. Plastic debris can absorb toxic chemicals from ocean pollution, potentially poisoning anything that eats it.[31]

Others

Some human activity in the Sargasso Sea has negatively impacted it, such as over-fishing and shipping.[32]

Depictions in popular culture

The Sargasso Sea is often portrayed in literature and the media as an area of mystery.[6] It is often depicted in fiction as a dangerous area where ships are mired in weed for centuries, unable to escape.[33]

Literature

Ezra Pound's "Portrait d'une Femme" opens with the line: "Your mind and you are our Sargasso Sea", suggesting that the woman addressed in the poem is a repository of trivia and disconnected facts.[34]

The Sargasso Sea features in classic fantasy stories by William Hope Hodgson, such as his novel The Boats of the "Glen Carrig" (1907), Victor Appleton's Don Sturdy novel Don Sturdy in the Port of Lost Ships: Or, Adrift in the Sargasso Sea, and several related short stories.[35] Jules Verne's Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Seas describes the Sargasso Sea and gives an account of its formation.[36] Thomas Allibone Janvier's 1898 novel is titled In the Sargasso Sea.[37]

Wide Sargasso Sea (1966) by Jean Rhys is a rewriting of Charlotte Brontë's Jane Eyre from Bertha Mason's point of view.[38][39]

Music

Guitarists John Abercrombie and Ralph Towner released an album titled Sargasso Sea in 1976.[40]

References

  1. ^ a b Stow, Dorrik A.V. (2004). Encyclopedia of the Oceans. Oxford University Press. p. 90. ISBN 978-0198606871. Retrieved 27 June 2017.
  2. ^ NGS Staff (27 September 2011). "Sea". nationalgeographic.org. National Geographic Society. Retrieved 27 June 2017. ...a sea is a division of the ocean that is enclosed or partly enclosed by land...
  3. ^ Karleskint, George (2009). Introduction to Marine Biology. Boston MA: Cengage Learning. p. 47. ISBN 9780495561972. Retrieved 7 January 2017.
  4. ^ "What's the Difference between an Ocean and a Sea?". Ocean Facts. Silver Spring MD: National Ocean Service (NOS), National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). 25 March 2014. Retrieved 7 January 2017 – via OceanService.NOAA.gov.
  5. ^ "Sargasso Sea". World Book. 1958. Vol. 15. Field Enterprises Educational Corp.
  6. ^ a b Heller, Ruth (2000). A Sea Within a Sea: Secrets of the Sargasso. Price Stern Sloan. ISBN 978-0-448-42417-0.
  7. ^ Sargasso Sea Alliance 2011, p. 10.
  8. ^ Akyeampong, Emmanuel Kwaku; Gates, Henry Louis Jr. (2 February 2012). Dictionary of African Biography. OUP USA. p. 70. ISBN 978-0-19-538207-5.
  9. ^ الإدريسي, أبي عبد الله محمد بن محمد/الشريف (1 January 2020). نزهة المشتاق في اختراق الآفاق (in Arabic). Dar Al Kotob Al Ilmiyah دار الكتب العلمية. ISBN 978-2-7451-6563-3.
  10. ^ Fromherz, Allen James, ‘The Near West’, page 133, 2016, Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 9781474426404
  11. ^ Sargasso Sea Alliance 2011, p. 11.
  12. ^ Nast, Condé (14 May 2020). "Where Do Eels Come From?". The New Yorker. Retrieved 2 October 2021.
  13. ^ Benson, Keith Rodney; Benson, Keith R.; Rehbock, Philip F. (2002). Oceanographic History: The Pacific and Beyond. University of Washington Press. p. 196. ISBN 978-0-295-98239-7.
  14. ^ Sargasso Sea Alliance 2011, p. 28.
  15. ^ McCrum, Robert (4 April 2009). "Deep water". The Guardian. Retrieved 30 September 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  16. ^ Proudfoot, Shannon (2016). "Inside Donald Crowhurst's heartbreaking round-the-world hoax". Sportsnet. Retrieved 30 September 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  17. ^ "Sargasso Sea". oceanfdn.org. The Ocean Foundation. 14 September 2015. Retrieved 27 June 2017.
  18. ^ Weatheritt, Les (2000). Your First Atlantic Crossing: A Planning Guide for Passagemakers (4th ed.). London: Adlard Coles Nautical. ISBN 9781408188088. Retrieved 27 June 2017.
  19. ^ Webster, George (31 May 2011). "Mysterious waters: from the Bermuda Triangle to the Devil's Sea". CNN. Retrieved 27 June 2017.
  20. ^ Sargasso Sea Alliance 2011, p. 7.
  21. ^ "Sargasso". Straight Dope. August 2002.
  22. ^ "Turtles return home after UK stay". BBC News. 30 June 2008. Retrieved 23 May 2010.
  23. ^ "Satellites track turtle 'lost years'". BBC News. 5 March 2014. Retrieved 5 March 2014.
  24. ^ "In the Sargasso Sea, life depends on floating sargassum seaweed". 15 May 2019.
  25. ^ Venter, JC; Remington, K; Heidelberg, JF; et al. (April 2004). "Environmental genome shotgun sequencing of the Sargasso Sea". Science. 304 (5667): 66–74. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.124.1840. doi:10.1126/science.1093857. PMID 15001713. S2CID 1454587.
  26. ^ "The Trash Vortex (2008)". Greenpeace. Archived from the original on 11 January 2009. Retrieved 20 April 2008.
  27. ^ "The trash vortex (2014)". Greenpeace.
  28. ^ Wilson, Stiv J. (16 June 2010). "Atlantic Garbage Patch". HuffPost. Retrieved 27 June 2017.
  29. ^ Shaw, David (27 May 2014). "Protecting the Sargasso Sea". Science & Diplomacy. 3 (2).
  30. ^ "Sargasso Sea Commission". sargassoalliance.org. Retrieved 7 January 2017.
  31. ^ Gwyneth Dickey Zaikab (March 2011). "Marine microbes digest plastic". Nature. doi:10.1038/news.2011.191.
  32. ^ Sargasso Sea Alliance 2011, p. 33.
  33. ^ Ryther, John H. (1956). "The Sargasso Sea". Scientific American. 194 (1): 98–108. ISSN 0036-8733.
  34. ^ Roberts, Brian Russell; Stephens, Michelle Ann (18 May 2017). Archipelagic American Studies. Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-7320-9.
  35. ^ Hodgeson, William Hope (2011). The Collected Fiction of William Hope Hodgson: Boats of Glen Carrig & Other Nautical Adventures. New York: Night Shade Books. ISBN 978-1-892389-39-8.
  36. ^ Verne, Jules (1870). 20,000 Leagues Under the Seas. Translated by Butcher, William (2001 ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0192828392.
  37. ^ The Literary World: A Monthly Review of Current Literature. S. R. Crocker. 1898. p. 243.
  38. ^ Jolley, Susan Arpajian (2005). "Teaching "Wide Sargasso Sea" in New Jersey". The English Journal. 94 (3): 61–66. doi:10.2307/30046421. ISSN 0013-8274.
  39. ^ Gilchrist, Jennifer (2012). "Women, Slavery, and the Problem of Freedom in Wide Sargasso Sea". Twentieth Century Literature. 58 (3): 462–494. ISSN 0041-462X.
  40. ^ Nastos, M. G. Allmusic Review accessed September 6, 2011

Bibliography

External links

Look up Sargasso Sea in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
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