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The History of Assam is the history of a confluence of people from the east, west, south and the north; the confluence of the Austroasiatic, Tibeto-Burman (Sino-Tibetan), Tai and Indo-Aryan cultures. Although invaded over the centuries, it was never a vassal or a colony to an external power until the third Burmese invasion in 1821 and subsequently the British ingress into Assam in 1824 during the First Anglo-Burmese War.[1]

Later documented rulers, and dynasties who are deemed to have ruled a portion of Assam are included in this list.

Kamarupa KingdomKamata KingdomBhuyan chieftainsAhom KingdomChutiya KingdomKachari KingdomKoch BiharKoch HajoHistory of Assam
Major kingdoms of Assam[2]

Ancient Kingdoms (c. 1200 BCE – 500 CE)

Sonitpura Kingdom

Main article: Asura Kingdom

The kingdom was contemporary of Pragjyotisha Kingdom of Kamarupa.[3]

Nu. Name of Known rulers
1 Marichi
2 Kashyap
3 Hiranyakashipu
4 Prahlad
5 Virochana
6 Mahabali
7 Bana

Pragjyotisha Kingdom

Main article: Pragjyotisha Kingdom

Danava dynasty

Main article: Danava dynasty

First legendary line of rulers in Pragjyotisha. The Danava dynasty consisted of Kirata chiefs; the last of whom, Ghatakasura, was killed and replaced by Naraka.[4]

Known Danava rulers of Pragjyotisha are:

  • Mahiranga
  • Hatakasura
  • Sambarasura
  • Ratnasura
  • Ghatakasura

Bhauma (Naraka) dynasty

Main article: Bhauma dynasty

Second legendary dynasty of Pragjyotisha. Known Bhauma rulers of Pragjyotisha are:

Davaka Kingdom (c. 100 – 500 CE)

Main article: Davaka

less information is available about this kingdom

Classical Assam : Kamarupa dynesties (350 – 1100 CE)

Main article: Kamarupa
The traditional extent of the Kamarupa kingdom

Varman dynasty (350 – 650 CE)

Main article: Varman dynasty

The dynastic line as given in the Dubi copperplate inscription and Nidhanpur copperplate inscription are as-

Reign Name succession Queen
1 350–374 CE Pushyavarman (unknown)
2 374–398 CE Samudravarman son of Pushyavarman Dattadevi
3 398–422 CE Balavarman son of Samudravarman Ratnavati
4 422–446 CE Kalyanavarman son of Balavarman Gandharavati
5 446–470 CE Ganapativarman son of Kalyanavarman Yajnavati
6 470–494 CE Mahendravarman son of Ganapativarman Suvrata
7 494–518 CE Narayanavarman son of Mahendravarman Devavati
8 518–542 CE Bhutivarman son of Narayanavarman Vijnayavati
9 542–566 CE Chandramukhavarman son of Bhutivarman Bhogavati
10 566–590 CE Sthitavarman son of Chandramukhavarman Nayanadevi
11 590–595 CE Susthitavarman son of Sthitavarman Syamadevi
12 595–600 CE Supratisthitavarman son of Susthitavarman (Bachelor)
13 600–650 CE Bhaskaravarman brother of Supratisthitavarman (Bachelor)
14 650–655 CE Unknown[5] (unknown) (unknown)

The grants of Ratnapala give the list of 21 kings from Salastambha to his line.

Mlechchha dynasty (650 – 900 CE)

Main article: Mlechchha dynasty
  • Salastamba (650–670 CE)
  • Vijaya alias Vigrahastambha
  • Palaka
  • Kumara
  • Vajradeva
  • Harshadeva alias Harshavarman (725–745 CE)
  • Balavarman II
  • Jivaraja
  • Digleswaravarman
  • Salambha[6]
  • Harjjaravarman (815–832 CE)
  • Vanamalavarmadeva (832–855 CE)
  • Jayamala alias Virabahu (855–860 CE)
  • Balavarman III (860–880 CE)
  • Tyagasimha (890–900 CE)

Pala dynasty (Kamarupa) (900 – 1100 CE)

Main article: Pala dynasty (Kamarupa)

Medieval Assam

Ahom dynasty (1228 – 1838 CE)

Main articles: Ahom kingdom and Ahom dynasty

In the nearly 600-years 39-Swargadeo dynastic history, there are three progenitor kings (all subsequent kings are descendants of these kings). They are Sukaphaa, who established the kingdom; Suhungmung, who made the greatest territorial and political expansion of the kingdom; and Supaatphaa, who established the House of Tungkhugia kings that reigned the kingdom during its political and cultural zenith, as well as the period of decay and end (except for Jogeswar Singha, who was a descendant of Supaatphaa's father Gobar, and who was installed as a puppet king by the Burmese).

Ahom kingdom

The dynastic history and dates that are accepted today are the result of a re-examination of Ahom and other documents by a team of Nora astronomers and experts who were commissioned to do so by Gaurinath Singha (1780–1795).[7]

The list of Swargadeos of the Ahom Kingdom
Years Reign Ahom name Other names succession End of reign Capital
1228–1268 40y Sukaphaa natural death Charaideo
1268–1281 13y Suteuphaa son of Sukaphaa natural death Charaideo
1281–1293 8y Subinphaa son of Suteuphaa natural death Charaideo
1293–1332 39y Sukhaangphaa son of Subinphaa natural death Charaideo
1332–1364 32y Sukhrangpha son of Sukhaangphaa natural death Charaideo
1364–1369 5y Interregnum[8]
1369–1376 7y Sutuphaa brother of Sukhrangphaa[9] assassinated[10] Charaideo
1376–1380 4y Interregnum
1380–1389 9y Tyao Khamti brother of Sutuphaa assassinated[11] Charaideo
1389–1397 8y Interregnum
1397–1407 10y Sudangphaa Baamuni Konwar son of Tyao Khaamti[12] natural death Charagua
1407–1422 15y Sujangphaa son of Sudangphaa natural death
1422–1439 17y Suphakphaa son of Sujangpha natural death
1439–1488 49y Susenphaa son of Suphakphaa natural death
1488–1493 5y Suhenphaa son of Susenphaa assassinated[13]
1493–1497 4y Supimphaa son of Suhenphaa natural death
1497–1539 42y Suhungmung Swarganarayan,
Dihingiaa Rojaa I 		son of Supimphaa assassinated[14] Bakata
1539–1552 13y Suklenmung Garhgayaan Rojaa son of Suhungmung natural death Garhgaon
1552–1603 51y Sukhaamphaa Khuraa Rojaa son of Suklenmung natural death Garhgaon
1603–1641 38y Susenghphaa Prataap Singha,
Burhaa Rojaa,
Buddhiswarganarayan 		son of Sukhaamphaa natural death Garhgaon
1641–1644 3y Suramphaa Jayaditya Singha,
Bhogaa Rojaa 		son of Susenghphaa deposed[15] Garhgaon
1644–1648 4y Sutingphaa Noriyaa Rojaa brother of Suramphaa deposed[16] Garhgaon
1648–1663 15y Sutamla Jayadhwaj Singha,
Bhoganiyaa Rojaa 		son of Sutingphaa natural death Garhgaon/Bakata
1663–1670 7y Supangmung Chakradhwaj Singha cousin of Sutamla[17] natural death Bakata/Garhgaon
1670–1672 2y Sunyatphaa Udayaditya Singha brother of Supangmung[18] deposed[19]
1672–1674 2y Suklamphaa Ramadhwaj Singha brother of Sunyatphaa poisoned[20]
1674–1675 21d Suhung[21] Samaguria Rojaa Khamjang Samaguria descendant of Suhungmung deposed[22]
1675–1675 24d Gobar Roja great-grandson of Suhungmung[23] deposed[24]
1675–1677 2y Sujinphaa[25] Arjun Konwar,
Dihingia Rojaa II 		grandson of Pratap Singha, son of Namrupian Gohain deposed, suicide[26]
1677–1679 2y Sudoiphaa Parvatia Rojaa great-grandson of Suhungmung[27] deposed, killed[28]
1679–1681 3y Sulikphaa Ratnadhwaj Singha,
Loraa Rojaa 		Samaguria family deposed, killed[29]
1681–1696 15y Supaatphaa Gadadhar Singha son of Gobar Rojaa natural death Borkola
1696–1714 18y Sukhrungphaa Rudra Singha son of Supaatphaa natural death Rangpur
1714–1744 30y Sutanphaa Siba Singha son Sukhrungphaa natural death
1744–1751 7y Sunenphaa Pramatta Singha brother of Sutanphaa natural death
1751–1769 18y Suremphaa Rajeswar Singha brother of Sunenphaa natural death
1769–1780 11y Sunyeophaa Lakshmi Singha brother of Suremphaa natural death
1780–1795 15y Suhitpangphaa Gaurinath Singha son of Sunyeophaa natural death Jorhat
1795–1811 16y Suklingphaa Kamaleswar Singha great-grandson of Lechai, the brother of Rudra Singha[30] natural death, smallpox Jorhat
1811–1818 7y Sudingphaa (1) Chandrakaanta Singha brother of Suklingphaa deposed[31] Jorhat
1818–1819 1y Purandar Singha (1) descendant of Suremphaa[31] deposed[32] Jorhat
1819–1821 2y Sudingphaa (2) Chandrakaanta Singha fled the capital[33]
1821–1822 1y Jogeswar Singha 5th descendant of Jambor, the brother of Gadadhar Singha. Jogeswar was brother of Hemo Aideo, and was puppet of Burmese ruler[34] removed[35]
1833–1838 Purandar Singha (2)[36]

Kachari (Dimasa) dynasty (1250 – 1832 CE)

Main article: Kachari Kingdom
The Kings of Kachar[37]
Capital King Date of Accession Reign in Progress End of reign
Dimapur La-wang-pa[38] 1406
Manipha
Ladapha
Viravijay Narayana[39] (or Khorapha) 1520? 1526
Khuntara 1526 1531
Detsung/Dersung 1531 1536
Interregnum?
Maibong Nirbhay Narayan 1558? 1559
Durlabh Narayan
Megha Narayan 1568 1578 1583?
Yasho Narayan (Satrudaman) 1583? 1601
Indrapratap Narayan 1601 1610
Nar Narayan
Bhimdarpa Narayan 1618?
Indraballabh Narayan 1628 1644?
Birdarpa Narayan 1644? 1681
Garurdhwaj Narayan(Thaosen Clan) 1681 1695
Makardhwaj Narayan( Thaosen Clan) 1695
Udayaditya(Thaosen Clan)
Tamradhwaj Narayan( Thaosen Clan/Sengphong) 1706 1708
Suradarpa Narayan ( Thaosen clan/Sengphong) 1708
Harischandra Narayan -1 (Thaosen Sengphong) 1721
Kirtichandra Narayan( Hasnusa Sengphong) 1736
Sandikhari Narayan alias Ram Chandra) 1736
Khaspur Harischandra-2 (Hasnusa Sengphong) 1771
Lakshmichandra Narayan 1772
Krishnachandra Narayan 1790 1813
Govindachandra Narayan 1814 1819
Chaurajit Singh (from Manipur) 1819 1823
Gambhir Singh (from Manipur) 1823 1824
Govindachandra Narayan 1824 1830
British Annexation 1832

Kamata dynasty (1228/1257 – 1365 CE)

Main article: Kamata Kingdom
  • Sandhya (1228/1257–1260)
  • Sindhu Rai (1260–1285)
  • Rup Narayan (1285–1300)
  • Singhadhwaj (1300–1305)
  • Pratapdhvaj (1305–1325)
  • Dharma Narayan (1325–1330)
  • Durlabh Narayan (1330–1350)
  • Indra Narayan (1350–1365)

Chutia (Sadiya) dynasty (1350 – 1523 CE)

Main article: Chutia Kingdom

Known rulers of the Chutia kingdom are:

  • Nandisvara (late 14th century)
  • Satyanarayana (late 14th century)
  • Lakshminarayana (early 15th century)
  • Dharmanarayana (early 15th century)
  • Durlabhnarayana (early 15th century)
  • Muktadharmanarayana (mid 15th century)
  • Pratyakshanarayana (mid 15th century)
  • Yasanarayana (mid 15th century)
  • Purandarnarayana (late 15th century)
  • Dhirnarayana (unknown – 1524)

Baro-Bhuyan rulers of Assam (1365 – 1440 CE)

Main article: Baro-Bhuyan
  • Sasanka or rimatta (1365–1385)
  • Gajanka (1385–1400)
  • Sukranka (1400–1415)
  • Mriganka (1415–1440)

Khen dynasty (1440 – 1498 CE)

Main article: Khen dynasty

Koch dynasty (1515 – 1949 CE)

Main article: Koch dynasty

Rulers of undivided Koch kingdom (1515 – 1586)

Rulers of Koch Bihar (1586 – 1949)

Further information: Cooch Behar State

Rulers of Koch Hajo (1581 – 1616 CE)

Further information: Koch Hajo
  • Raghudev (son of Chilarai, nephew of Nara Narayan)
  • Parikshit Narayan

Rulers of Darrang

  • Balinarayan (brother of Parikshit Narayan)
  • Mahendra Narayan
  • Chandra Narayan
  • Surya Narayan

Rulers of Beltola

See also: History of Beltola
  • Gaj Narayan Dev (brother of Parikshit Narayan, ruler of Koch Hajo, brother of Balinarayan, first Koch ruler of Darrang).
  • Shivendra Narayan Dev (Son of Gaj Narayan)
  • Gandharva Narayan Dev (Son of Shivendra Narayan)
  • Uttam Narayan Dev (Son of Gandharva Narayan Dev)
  • Dhwaja Narayan Dev (Son of Uttam Narayan Dev)
  • Jay Narayan Dev (Son of Dhwaja Narayan Dev)
  • Lambodar Narayan Dev (Son of Jay Narayan Dev)
  • Lokpal Narayan Dev (Son of Lambodar Narayan Dev)
  • Amrit Narayan Dev (Son of Lokpal Narayan Dev)
  • Chandra Narayan Dev (Son of Lokpal Narayan Dev) (died 1910 CE)
  • Rajendra Narayan Dev (Son of Chandra Narayan Dev) (died 1937 CE)
  • Lakshmipriya Devi (wife of Rajendra Narayan Dev) (reign:1937–1947 CE died: 1991 CE)

Rulers of Bijni

The Bijni rulers reigned between the Sankosh and the Manas rivers, the region immediately to the east of Koch Bihar.

  • Chandra Narayan (son of Parikshit Narayan)
  • Joy Narayan
  • Shiv Narayan
  • Bijoy Narayan
  • Mukunda Narayan
  • Haridev Narayan
  • Balit Narayan
  • Indra Narayan
  • Amrit Narayan
  • Kumud Narayan
  • Jogendra Narayan
  • Bhairabendra Narayan

Rulers of Khaspur

The independent rule of the Khaspur rulers ended in 1745 when it merged with the Kachari kingdom.[41]

The rulers of the Koch kingdom at Khaspur are:[42]

  • Kamal Narayan (Gohain Kamal, son of Biswa Singha, governor of Khaspur)
  • Udita Narayan (declared independence of Khaspur in 1590)
  • Vijay Narayana
  • Dhir Narayana
  • Mahendra Narayana
  • Ranjit
  • Nara Singha
  • Bhim Singha (his only issue, daughter Kanchani, married a prince of Kachari kingdom, and Khaspur merged with the Kachari kingdom)

Modern Assam : British Colonial Assam (1826 – 1947 CE)

Chronology of British Colonial regin on Assam-
  1. Bengal Presidency (1826 – 1873 CE)
  2. Chief Commissioner's Province (1874 – 1905 CE)
  3. Eastern Bengal and Assam under Lt. Governor (1906 – 1912 CE)
  4. Assam Legislative Council (1912 – 1920 CE)
  5. Dyarchy (1921 – 1937 CE)
  6. Assam Legislative Assembly (1937 – 1947 CE)[43][44]

Republic of India

List of governors of Assam
List of chief ministers of Assam

See also

References

  1. ^ (Urban 2009:86)
  2. ^ Baruah 1986.
  3. ^ Shin 2018, p. 321.
  4. ^ (Gait 1906, p. 12)
  5. ^ "Though there exists no direct evidence, there are indirect evidence of a king who ruled for a short period after Bhaskaravarman, but was ousted by Salasthamba."(Sharma 1978, pp. xxxi–xxxii).
  6. ^ Pralambha, read from the Tezpur plates, can be corrected to Salambha, in light of the Parbatiya plates (Sharma 1978, p. 105)
  7. ^ (Gogoi 1968:534–535)
  8. ^ Gogoi records that Sukhrangphaa died without leaving a son and the two ministers administered the kingdom without a king for five years (Gogoi 1968, p. 273). Gait and others do not record this (Gait 1906, p. 358), though Baruah does (Baruah 1993, p. 282)
  9. ^ Sutuphaa was the younger brother of Sukhrangphaa, who was settled in a village called Lahanjing. He was invited by the Burhagohain and Borgohain to become the king and he set up his seat at Chapagurinagar (Gogoi 1968, p. 273)
  10. ^ Sukhramphaa was assassinated by the king of the Chutiya kingdom on a barge ride on Suffry river (Gogoi 1968:273).
  11. ^ Sukhangphaa and his chief queen were deposed and executed by the ministers for their autocratic rule (Gogoi 1968:274).
  12. ^ Sudangphaa Bamuni Konwar was born to the second queen of Tyao Khamti in a Brahmin household of Habung (Gogoi 1968:274–275).
  13. ^ Suhenphaa was speared to death in his palace by a Tai-Turung chief in revenge for being accused of theft (Gogoi 1968:282).
  14. ^ Suhungmung was assassinated by a palace staff in a plot engineered by his son, Suklenmung (Gogoi 1968:309).
  15. ^ Suramphaa was deposed by the ministers when he insisted on burying alive a son of each minister in the tomb of his dead step-son (Gogoi 1968:386). He was later murdered on the instructions of his nephew, the son of his brother and succeeding Swargadeo.
  16. ^ Sutingphaa was a sickly king (Noriaya Raja), who participated in an intrigue by his chief queen to install a prince unpopular with the ministers. He was deposed and later murdered on the instructions of his son and successor king Sutamla (Gogoi 1968:391–392).
  17. ^ Supangmung was grandson of Suleng (Deo Raja), the second son of Suhungmung (Gogoi 1968:448).
  18. ^ The Maju Gohain, the brother of Chakradhwaj Singha, became the king. (Gogoi 1968, p. 470)
  19. ^ Udayaaditya Sinha's palace was stormed by his brother (and successor king) with a thousand-strong contingent of men led by Lasham Debera, and the king was executed the next day. Udayaaditya's religious fanaticism under the influence of a godman had made him unpopular, and the three great gohains implicitly supported this group (Gogoi 1968:479–482). This event started a very unstable nine-year period of weak kings, dominated by Debera Borbarua, Atan Burhagohain and Laluk-sola Borphukan in succession. This period ended with the accession of Gadadhar Singha.
  20. ^ Ramadhwaj Sinha was poisoned on the instructions of Debera Borbarua when he tried to assert his authority (Gogoi 1968:484).
  21. ^ Deyell, John S. Ahom Language Coins of Assam.
  22. ^ The Samaguria raja was deposed by Debera Borbarua, the de facto ruler, and later executed, along with his queen and her brother (Gogoi 1968:486).
  23. ^ Gobar Rojaa was the son of Saranga, the son of Suten, the son of Suhungmung Dihingiya Roja.
  24. ^ Gobar Raja was deposed and executed by the Saraighatias (the commanders of Saraighat/Guwahati), led by Atan Burhagohain (Gogoi 1968:486–488). Their target was the de facto ruler, Debera Borbarua, who was also executed.
  25. ^ After Ramdhwaj Singha, Chamaguriya Khamjang Konwar alias Shujinpha ruled only 20 days from 10 April 1674 (e.i. Lakni Kat plao (or 26th year) of 18th Taosinga Circle) and on 30 April he was killed. There after Tungkhongiya Gobar Raja rose only 12 ruled. Both were killed by the powerful minister Debera Baruah. After Gobar Raja two more princes rose only for another 12 days who are not recorded in chronicles. The title of Suhung is suitable for Dihingia Arjun Konwar, who minted coins and ruled more than six months and the minted year 1675 is his rising year (e.i. Lakni khut ni (or 27th year) of 18th Taosinga Circle) -- (Phukan, J.N. (1987). Reattribution of the Coins of Suhung)
  26. ^ Dihingia Arjun Konwar tried to assert control by moving against the de facto ruler, Atan Burhagohain, but was routed in a skirmish. Sujinphaa was blinded and held captive when he committed suicide by striking his head against a stone (Gogoi 1968:489).
  27. ^ Sudoiphaa was the grandson of Suhungmung's third son, Suteng (Gogoi 1968:490).
  28. ^ Sudoiphaa was deposed by Laluk-sola Borphukan, who styled himself as the Burhaphukan, and later executed. Atan Burhagohain, the powerful minister, had been executed earlier (Gogoi 1968:492–493).
  29. ^ Sulikphaa Lora Roja was deposed and then executed by Gadadhar Singha (Gogoi 1968:496–497).
  30. ^ Kamaleswar Singha was installed as the king by Purnananda Burhagohain when he was still an infant. He was the son of Kadam Dighala, the son of Ayusut, the son of Lechai, the second son of Gadadhar Singha. Kadam Dighala, who could not become the king because of physical blemishes, was an important influence during the reign (Baruah 1993:148–150).
  31. ^ a b Chandrakanta Singha was deposed by Ruchinath Burhagohain, mutilated and confined as a prisoner near Jorhat (Baruah 1993:221). The Burhagohain choose Brajanath, a descendant of Suremphaa Pramatta Singha, as the king and coins were struck in the new king's name, but it was discovered that he had mutilations on his person and his son, Purandar Singha, was instated instead (Gait 1906:223).
  32. ^ Purandar Singha's forces under Jaganath Dhekial Phukan defeated the forces led by the Burmese general Kee-Woomingee (Kiamingi or Alumingi Borgohain) on 15 February 1819, but due to a strategic mistake Jorhat fell into Burmese hands. Kiamingi brought back Chandrakanta Singha and installed him the king (Baruah 1993:221–222).
  33. ^ Chandrakanta Singha fled to Guwahati when the army of Bagyidaw king of Burma, led by Mingimaha Tilwa, approached Jorhat (Baruah 1993:223).
  34. ^ Jogeshwar Singha was the brother of Hemo Aideu, one of the queens of Bagyidaw. He was installed as the king by Mingimaha Tilwa (Baruah 1993:223).
  35. ^ Jogeshwar Singha was removed from all pretense of power and Mingimaha Tilwa was declared the "Raja of Assam" toward the end of June 1822 (Baruah 1993:225).
  36. ^ Purandar Singha was set up by the East India Company as the tributary Raja of Upper Assam (Baruah 1993:244).
  37. ^ (Rhodes 1986:167)
  38. ^ "Entry | Southeast Asia in the Ming Shi-lu". epress.nus.edu.sg. Retrieved 8 October 2021.
  39. ^ (Shin 2020:63)
  40. ^ "Princess Daisy of Pless: The Happy Years. An exhibition at Castle Pless". www.rvondeh.dircon.co.uk.
  41. ^ "The Khaspur state originated with Chilarai's invasion in 1562 AD and remained in existence till 1745 when it merged with the Dimasa state of Maibong." (Bhattacharjee 1994:71)
  42. ^ (Bhattacharjee 1994:71)
  43. ^ http://www.slideshare.net/umain30/genesis-of-nellie-massacre-and-assam-agitation Genesis of nellie massacre and assam agitation
  44. ^ "Assam riots: Of ghost towns and relief camps, 4 lakh people displaced". Retrieved 5 August 2016.

Sources

  • Baruah, S L (1986), A Comprehensive History of Assam, Munshiram Manoharlal
  • Baruah, S. L. (1993), Last Days of Ahom Monarchy, New Delhi{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  • Bhattacharjee, J.B. (1994), Milton S. Sangma (ed.), "The Pre-Colonial Political Structure of Barak Valley", Essays on North-east India: Presented in Memory of Professor V. Venkata Rao, New Delhi: Indus Publishing, ISBN 978-81-7387-015-6
  • Gait, Edward A (1906), A History of Assam, Calcutta{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  • Gogoi, Padmeshwar (1968), The Tai and the Tai kingdoms, Guwahati: Gauhati University
  • Rhodes, N G (1986). "The Coinage of Kachar". The Numismatic Chronicle. 146: 155–177. ISSN 0078-2696. JSTOR 42667461.
  • Sharma, Mukunda Madhava (1978), Inscriptions of Ancient Assam, Gauhati University, Assam
  • Shin, Jae-Eun (2018), "Region Formed and Imagined: Reconsidering temporal, spatial and social context of Kamarupa", in Dzüvichü, Lipokmar; Baruah, Manjeet (eds.), Modern Practices in North East India: History, Culture, Representation, London & New York: Routledge, pp. 23–55
  • Shin, Jae-Eun (2020). "Descending from demons, ascending to kshatriyas: Genealogical claims and political process in pre-modern Northeast India, The Chutiyas and the Dimasas". The Indian Economic and Social History Review. 57 (1): 49–75. doi:10.1177/0019464619894134. S2CID 213213265.
  • Urban, Hugh (2009), The Power of Tantra: Religion, Sexuality and the Politics of South Asian Studies, Bloomsbury, ISBN 9780857715869
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