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Chinese armour

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Chinese armour was predominantly lamellar from the Warring States period (481 BC - 221 BC) onward, prior to which animal parts such as rhinoceros hide, rawhide, and turtle shells were used for protection. Lamellar armour was supplemented by scale armour since the Warring States period or earlier. Partial plate armour was popular from the Northern and Southern dynasties (420–589), and mail and mountain pattern armour from the Tang dynasty (618–907). mail had been known since the Han Dynasty, but did not see widespread production or battlefield use, and may have seen as "exotic foreign armor" used as a display of wealth for wealthier officers and soldiers. During the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), brigandine began to supplant lamellar armour and was used to a great degree into the Qing dynasty (1644–1912.). By the 19th century most Qing armour, which was of the brigandine type, were purely ceremonial, having kept the outer studs for aesthetic purposes, and omitted the protective metal plates.

Ancient armour

Shang dynasty (c. 1600 BC–c. 1046 BC)

The earliest archaeological evidence of armour in China dates to the Shang dynasty. These were either breastplates made of shell tied together or a one-piece leather breastplate.[1] Helmets were made of bronze and often sported elaborate designs consisting of animal motifs. Armour was exclusively for nobles; regular folks had no protection except for a leather covered bamboo shield.[2]

Zhou dynasty (c. 1046 BC–256 BC)

Armour in the Zhou dynasty consisted of either a sleeveless coat of rhinoceros or buffalo hide, or leather scale armour. Helmets were largely similar to Shang predecessors but less ornate. Chariot horses were sometimes protected by tiger skins.[3]

Warring States (c. 475 BC–221 BC)

See also: Military of the Warring States

In the 4th century BC, rhinoceros armour was still used. In the following passage Guan Zhong advises Duke Huan of Qi to convert punishments to armour and weapons:

Ordain that serious crimes are to be redeemed with a suit of rhinoceros armour and one halberd, and minor crimes with a plaited leather shield and one halberd. Misdemeanours are to be punished with [a fine of] a quota of metal [jin fen 金分], and doubtful cases are to be pardoned. A case should be delayed for investigation for three [days] without allowing arguments or judgements; [by the time] the case is judged [the subject will have produced] one bundle of arrows. Good metal [mei jin 美金] should be cast into swords and halberd[-heads] and tested on dogs and horses, while poorer metal [e jin 惡金] should be cast into agricultural implements and tested on earth.[4]

— Guan Zhong

Lamellar armour

Qin dynasty Terracotta Army soldier wearing lamellar armour

Lamellar armour of leather, bronze and iron appeared by the mid-4th century BC. It consisted of individual armour pieces (lamellae, lamella singular) that were either riveted or laced together to form a suit of armour.[5] Iron helmets constructed with multiple lamellae began to replace the one piece bronze helmets of old. One sample discovered in Yi county, Hebei Province was composed of 89 lamellae, averaging 5cm x 4cm.[6]

In the 3rd century BC, both iron weapons and armour became more common. According to the Xunzi, "the hard iron spears of Wan (宛) [a city in Chu, near modern Nanyang (南陽), Henan] are as cruel as wasps and scorpions."[7] Iron weapons also gave Chinese armies an edge over barbarians. Han Fei recounts that during a battle with the Gonggong (共工) tribe, "the iron-tipped lances reached the enemy, and those without strong helmets and armour were injured."[8] The effectiveness of bronze axes and shields may have been superseded by new iron weaponry and armor. [9] The efficiency of crossbows however outpaced any progress in defensive armour. It was considered a common occurrence in ancient China for commoners or peasants to kill a lord with a well aimed crossbow bolt, regardless of whatever armour he might have been wearing at the time.[10]

Shun taught the ways of good government for the following three years, and then took up shield and battle-ax and performed the war dance, and the Miao submitted. But in the war with the Gonggong, men used iron lances with steel heads that reached to the enemy, so that unless one was protected by a stout helmet and armor he was likely to be wounded. Hence shields and battle-axes served for ancient times, but no longer serve today. So I say that as circumstances change the ways of dealing with them alter too.[11]

— Han Fei

Armour was mostly restricted to elite guard units and each state distributed armour in their own ways. The state of Chu favoured elite armoured crossbow units known for their endurance, and were capable of marching 160km 'without resting.'[5] Wei's elite forces were capable of marching over 40km in one day while wearing heavy armour, a large crossbow with 50 bolts, a helmet, a side sword, and three days worth of rations. Those who met these standards earned an exemption from corvée labor and taxes for their entire family.[12]

According to Su Qin, the state of Han made the best weapons, capable of cleaving through the strongest armour, shields, leather boots and helmets.[13] Their soldiers wore iron facemasks.[5]

By the end of the 3rd century BC at least a few horsemen wore armour of some kind.[5]

  • Warring States leather armour
    Warring States leather armour
  • Qin stone armour
    Qin stone armour
  • Group of Terracotta Army soldiers
    Group of Terracotta Army soldiers
  • Terracotta soldier (upper body)
    Terracotta soldier (upper body)
  • Terracotta soldiers being reassembled
    Terracotta soldiers being reassembled

Qin armour

The Qin calculated fines for more severe crimes in terms of one or two coats of armour, lower crimes in terms of shields, and the lowest in terms of coins.[14] Qin soldiers sometimes threw off their armour in a kind of berserk rage and engaged in fanatical charges.[15] Qin armour usually used rectangular lamellae with dimensions of 7.5cm x 8.5cm and 10.5cm x 7.8cm. Dimensions of lamellae used for charioteer armour varies between the upper body, lower body, and arms. Lamellae on the upper body were 7cm x 6cm, the lower body 9cm x 6.5cm, and arms 4-7.5cm x 4cm. Lamellae on cavalrymen were 8cm x 5.7cm.[16] A complete set of Qin armour, judging by the finds in the Terracotta Army consisted of 250 to 612 pieces in total, not including the helmet.[17]

Six groups of armour have been identified in the Terracotta Army corresponding to rank and military division. Ordinary soldiers are outfitted with no armour at all, cavalrymen with armour that covered the chest, armed infantry with armour covering the torso and shoulders, low-ranking officers with armour using large lamellae, middle-ranking officers with shorter armour covering the torso and waist or just the breast, but with decorations such as ribbons, and generals with a distinctive coat showing torso armour and ribbons to signify their status. None of the terracotta soldiers have been found wearing a helmet or holding a shield. The generals wear a pheasant-tail headdress while middle ranking officers wear a long flat cap. Both armed infantry and cavalrymen have soft caps, but while the infantry cap accommodates the top knot, the cap for cavalrymen is flat and tied below the chin.[18]

There is some evidence that armour for horses might have existed for Qin cavalry judging by 300 lamellae too large for human use.[19]

Han dynasty (206 BC–220 AD)

Han shieldbearers
See also: Army of the Han dynasty

Han dynasty armour was largely the same as the Qin dynasty with minor variations. Infantry wore suits of lacquered rawhide, hardened and lacquered leather [or partially tanned rawhide?], or iron [or iron alloys such as steel] lamellar armour and caps or iron helmets. A suit of iron armour dating to the Western Han period consisted of 328 lamellae pieces.[20] Some riders wore armour and carried shields and some horses were armored. However, more widespread and more comprehensive horse armour is not attested to until the late 2nd century.[21]

Han dynasty inventory list (13 BC)
Item Inventory Imperial Heirloom
Jia armour 142,701 34,265
Kai armour 63,324
Thigh armour 10,563
Iron thigh armour 256
Iron lamellar armour (pieces?) 587,299
Helmets 98,226
Horse armour 5,330
Shields 102,551

During the late 2nd century BC, the government created a monopoly on the ironworks, which may have caused a decrease in quality of iron and armour. Bu Shi claimed that the resulting products were inferior because they were made to meet quotas rather than for practical use. These monopolies as debated in the Discourses on Salt and Iron were abolished by the beginning of the 1st century AD. In 150 AD, Cui Shi made similar complaints about the issue of quality control in government production due to corruption: "...not long thereafter the overseers stopped being attentive, and the wrong men have been promoted by Imperial decree. Greedy officers fight over the materials, and shifty craftsmen cheat them... Iron [i.e. steel] is quenched in vinegar, making it brittle and easy to... [?] The suits of armour are too small and do not fit properly."[22]

Composite bows were considered effective against unarmoured enemies at 165 yards, and against armoured opponents at 65 yards.[23]

  • Restored Han iron shield
    Restored Han iron shield
  • Late Eastern Han/Three Kingdoms shieldbearers
    Late Eastern Han/Three Kingdoms shieldbearers

Hook shield

During the Han dynasty, a hook shield was used in combination with a sword when fighting against polearms. The hook shield was a small iron shield that had hooks at the top and bottom for hooking halberds or spears. Sometimes it had a thorny protrusion in the middle for attacking.[24]

Three Kingdoms (220–280)

Jin soldiers holding shields.
File:Six Dynasties cavalry.jpg
Eastern Jin armoured cavalry
Main article: Military history of the Three Kingdoms

By the Three Kingdoms period many cavalrymen wore armour and some horses were equipped with their own armour as well. In one battle, the warlord Cao Cao boasted that with only ten sets of horse armour he had faced an enemy with three hundred sets.[25] The horse armour may however have just been metal partial frontal barding or a mixture of metal and rawhide barding rather than fully comprehensive all metal barding.[26]

References to "great shields" occur in their usage on the front line to protect spearmen and crossbowmen. Shields were also commonly paired with the single edged dao and used among cavalrymen.[27] Descriptions of the Battle of Guandu mention that Cao Cao's soldiers employed shield cover above their heads each time they moved out into the open due to oppressive arrow fire from Yuan Shao's wooden towers.[28]

Dark armour

A report in 231 AD mentions the capture of 5,000 suits of "dark armour" (xuan kai or xuan jia 玄鎧/玄甲) and 3,100 crossbows. Dark armour appears in Han texts as well, but only as the attire worn by honor guards at funeral processions. The only trait known about dark armour is that it reflected the sun's rays. This probably means dark armour was made of high quality steel, which was often associated with black ferrous material.[29]

Brilliant armour

Cao Zhi mentioned three different kinds of armour, two of which were variants of "brilliant" armour:

The Previous Emperor presented your vassal with armor (kai), to wit, a suit of "black-brilliant" (heiguang) and one of "bright-brilliant" (mingguang) and a suit of "double-faced" (liangtang) armor, but now that the present age is peaceful and the weapons and armor (bingge) are not of use, I request leave to turn them all over to the Armor Board (kaicao) to be taken care of.[30]

— Cao Zhi

Brilliant armour was made of decarburized steel, which shines blue-black when polished, giving it its name. Chen Lin described brilliant armour in the following manner:

As for the armor (kai) then like that of Quegong of the Eastern Barbarians,
It is made of the finest steel refined a hundred times;
The armorer has plied his hammer,
The leather-worker has made the stitching;
[Adorned with] dark feathers the flashing armor (jia)
Gleams and shines, throwing off light.[31]

— Chen Lin

Jin dynasty and the Sixteen Kingdoms (265–439)

Former Yan cavalry in procession
Main article: Military history of the Jin dynasty (266–420) and the Sixteen Kingdoms (304–439)

Fully comprehensive metal horse armour covering the horse's entire body appeared in northeastern China in the mid-4th century during the Eastern Jin dynasty, probably as a result of Xianbei influence. By the end of the 4th century, murals depicting horse armour covering the entire body were found in tombs as far as Yunnan.[32]

By the early years of the fourth century the numbers have increased enormously, with the sources mentioning the capture of thousands of “armored horses” in a single battle. A pictoral representation dated to 357 shows us a fully armored warrior: “The body of the rider is almost completely covered by armor. He wears a plumed helmet that protects the sides and back of the head, a habergeon with high neck and shoulder guards, and chaps. The armor was made of lamellar plate, but one cannot say whether of iron or of lacquered leather. The bardings almost completely cover the horse and include a chanfron of distinctive shape.”[25]

— David A. Graff

Sources mention the capture of thousands of "armored horses" in a single battle.[25]

Five colored armour

Shi Hu's bodyguard was said to have worn "fine five-colored armour" (wuse xikai), which was so dazzling it blinded the eye. This was probably similar in construction to brilliant armour.[33]

Northern and Southern dynasties (420–589)

Main article: Military history of the Northern and Southern dynasties

Cord and plaque

During the Northern and Southern dynasties period (420-589), a style of armour called "cord and plaque" became popular, as did shields and long swords. "Cord and plaque" armour consisted of double breast plates in the front and back held together, sometimes on a frame, by two shoulder straps and waist cords, worn over the usual lamellar armour. "Cord and plaque" wearing figurines are also often depicted holding an oval or rectangular shield and a long sword.[34] Types of armour had also apparently become distinct enough for there to be separate categories for light and heavy armour.[35]

Bright brilliant armour continued to be prominent. In 518 AD, the Northern Wei court gave a visiting Avar chieftain a set of fine bright brilliant cavalry armour and six sets of iron cavalry armour. Deployment of armoured cavalry was common for the Northern Wei, especially among the "iron-clad" Erzhu tribe who specialized in armoured cavalry.[34] References to heavy cavalry as "iron horses" occur in the poetry of Lu Chui. In 543 AD, the Western Wei general Cai Yu came to be known as "iron tiger" for his distinctive bright brilliant armour.[33]

Banded armour

File:Xianbei wearing banded armour.jpg
Xianbei soldier wearing banded armour

Depictions of "banded" armour have been found in Northern and Southern dynasties and Tang era art. This type of armour was built up of long horizontal bands or plates, similar to the lorica segmentata. The imperial guards of the Jurchen Jin dynasty have been described wearing banded armour. The left guards wore blue banded armour and held yellow dragon flags while the right guards wore red banded armour and held red dragon flags. Banded armour is even more rarely depicted than the elusive mountain pattern armour or mail armour.[36]

Co-fusion steel weapons on armour

Western Wei cavalry

In the 6th century, Qimu Huaiwen introduced to Northern Qi the process of 'co-fusion' steel-making, which used metals of different carbon contents to create steel. Apparently sabers made using this method were capable of penetrating 30 armour lamellae. It's not clear if the armour was of iron or leather.

Huaiwen made sabres [dao 刀] of 'overnight iron' [su tie 宿鐵]. His method was to anneal [shao 燒] powdered cast iron [sheng tie jing 生鐵精] with layers of soft [iron] blanks [ding 鋌, presumably thin plates]. After several days the result is steel [gang 剛]. Soft iron was used for the spine of the sabre, He washed it in the urine of the Five Sacrificial Animals and quench-hardened it in the fat of the Five Sacrificial Animals: [Such a sabre] could penetrate thirty armour lamellae [zha 札]. The 'overnight soft blanks' [Su rou ting 宿柔鋌] cast today [in the Sui period?] by the metallurgists of Xiangguo (襄國) represent a vestige of [Qiwu Huaiwen's] technique. The sabres which they make are still extremely sharp, but they cannot penetrate thirty lamellae.[37]

  • NS dynasties shieldbearer in "cord and plaque" armour
    NS dynasties shieldbearer in "cord and plaque" armour
  • Northern Qi soldier
    Northern Qi soldier
  • Northern Wei heavy cavalry funerary figurine.
    Northern Wei heavy cavalry funerary figurine.
  • Cavalry of Northern Wei.
    Cavalry of Northern Wei.
  • Northern Wei horseman
    Northern Wei horseman
  • Cavalry of the Southern dynasties.
    Cavalry of the Southern dynasties.

Medieval armour

Sui dynasty (581–618)

Main article: Military history of the Sui–Tang dynasties

The Sui dynasty made prodigious use of heavy cavalry. Both men and horses were heavily armoured.[38]

The History of Sui provides an account of the "first cavalry battalions" of the dynasty's 24 armies. They wore "bright-brilliant" (mingguang) armour made of decarburized steel connected by dark green cords, their horses wore iron armour with dark green tassels, and they were distinguished by lion banners. Other battalions were also distinguished by their own colors, patterns, and flags, but neither the bright-brilliant armour or iron armour are mentioned.[39][40]

  • Sui soldier
    Sui soldier
  • Sui soldier
    Sui soldier
  • Sui soldier
    Sui soldier
  • Sui soldier
    Sui soldier

Tang dynasty (618–907)

Tang soldier in cord and plaque armour

By the Tang dynasty it was possible for armour to provide immense personal protection. In one instance Li Shimin's cousin, Li Daoxuan, was able to cut his way through the entire enemy mass of Xia soldiers and then cut his way back again, repeating the operation several times before the battle was won, at which point he had so many arrows sticking out of his armour that he looked like a "porcupine."[41] The effective range of a composite bow against armoured troops in this era was considered to be around 75 to 100 yards.[42]

Infantry armour became more common in the Tang era and roughly 60 percent of active soldiers were equipped with armour of some kind.[43] Armour could be manufactured natively or captured as a result of war. For instance 10,000 suits of iron armour were captured during the Goguryeo–Tang War.[44] Armour and mounts, including pack animals, were supplied by the state through state funds, and thus considered state property. Private ownership of military equipment such as horse armour, long lances, and crossbows was prohibited. Possession was taken as intent of rebellion or treason.[45] The army staff kept track of armour and weapons with detailed records of items issued. If a deficiency was discovered, the corresponding soldier was ordered to pay restitution.[46] The state also provided clothing and rations for border garrisons and expeditionary armies. Soldiers not on active duty were expected to pay for themselves, although "professional" soldiers were given tax exemptions.[47]

Li Shimin's elite cavalry forces were known to have worn distinctive black "iron clad" armour,[48] but heavy cavalry declined as Turkic influence became more prevalent and light cavalry became the dominant mode of mounted warfare. Tang expeditionary forces to Central Asia preferred a mixture of light and heavy Chinese horse archers. After the An Lushan rebellion of the mid-9th century and losing the northwestern pastures to the Tibetans, Chinese cavalry almost disappeared altogether as a relevant military force.[49] Many southern horses were considered too small or frail to carry an armoured soldier.[50]

Tang iron lamellae were between 9.6 to 9 cm long, 2.6 to 1.3 cm wide, and 0.28 to 0.22 cm thick.[51]

Mail armour

Mail was already known to the Chinese since they first encountered it in 384 AD when their allies in the nation of Kuchi arrived wearing "armor similar to chains". However mail armour was not mentioned again until 718 AD when a tributary mission from Samarkand presented to the Tang emperor a coat of "link armour". Mail was later improved on during the Song dynasty to withstand arrows better, by which H. Russell Robinson believes meant using interlocked rings.[36] However mail was never used in any significant numbers and was seen as a valuable status symbol, so it typically belonged to the affluent and rich who could afford it. The dominant form of armour continued to be lamellar.[52]

Mountain pattern armour

References to mountain pattern armour (Chinese: 山文鎧; pinyin: shānwénkǎi) appear as early as the Tang dynasty in the Six Statutels of the Tang Dynasty, but historical texts provide no explanation or diagram of how it actually worked. There are also no surviving examples of it. Everything that is known about mountain pattern armour comes from paintings and statues, typically of the Song and Ming periods. It is not unique to China and has been found in depictions in Korea, Vietnam, Japan, and even Thailand, however non-religious depictions are limited to only China, Korea, and Vietnam. Reconstruction projects of this type of armour have largely failed to produce good results.[53]

The current theory is that this type of armour is made from a multitude of small pieces of iron or steel shaped like the Chinese character for the word "mountain" (山). The pieces are interlocked and riveted to a cloth or leather backing. It covers the torso, shoulders and thighs while remaining comfortable and flexible enough to allow movement. Also during this time, senior Chinese officers used mirror armour (Chinese: 護心鏡; pinyin: hùxīnjìng) to protect important body parts, while cloth, leather, lamellar, and/or Mountain pattern armor were used for other body parts. This overall design was called "shining armor" (Chinese: 明光甲; pinyin: míngguāngjiǎ).[54]

There is an alternative theory that mountain pattern armour is simply a result of very stylistic depictions of mail armour, but known depictions of mail armour in Chinese art do not match with mountain pattern armour either.[55]

  • Scale armor with interlocking mountain-shaped pieces
    Scale armor with interlocking mountain-shaped pieces
  • Tang tomb guardians wearing mountain pattern armour
    Tang tomb guardians wearing mountain pattern armour
  • Tang soldier wearing a combination of mail, cord and plaque, and mountain pattern armour.
    Tang soldier wearing a combination of mail, cord and plaque, and mountain pattern armour.
  • Close up view of the Ming dynasty painting "Departure Herald" showing riders wearing lamellar and mountain pattern armour
    Close up view of the Ming dynasty painting "Departure Herald" showing riders wearing lamellar and mountain pattern armour
  • Ming depiction of mail armour - it looks like scale, but this was a common artistic convention. The text says "steel wire connecting ring armour."
    Ming depiction of mail armour - it looks like scale, but this was a common artistic convention. The text says "steel wire connecting ring armour."

Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms (907–960)

Song dynasty depiction of Xiongnu in Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute, but their appearance is based on contemporary Khitans
Khitan cavalry
Main article: Military history of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms

Paper armour

During the wars between the Later Zhou and Southern Tang, civilians on the Tang side formed "White Armor Armies", named after the white paper armour they wore. These Tang civilian armies experienced some success in driving off small contingents of Zhou forces but avoided confrontation with the larger army.[56] The White Armour militia army was later revived to fight against the Song dynasty, but they were ineffective and disbanded.[57]

Later Ming texts provide descriptions of paper armour. One version was made of silk paper and functioned as a gambeson, worn under other armour or by itself. Silk paper could also be used for arm guards. Another version used thicker, more flexible paper, hammered soft, and fastened with studs. It's said that this type of paper armour performed better when soaked with water.[58]

Paper armour was still worn by the Hui people in Yunnan in the late 19th century. Bark paper armour in layers of thirty to sixty sheets in addition to silk and cotton was considered to be fairly good protection against musket balls and bayonets, which got stuck in the layers of paper, but not breech loading rifles at close quarters.[59]

Liao dynasty (907–1125)

The Khitans of the Liao dynasty employed heavy armoured cavalry as the core of their army. In battle they arrayed light cavalry in the front and two layers of armoured cavalry in the back. Even foragers were armoured.[60] Units of Khitan heavy cavalry were organized in groups of 500 to 700 men. Unlike some other empires originating from nomadic tribes, the Khitans preferred to fight in dense heavy cavalry formations rather than the wide formations of horse archers.[61]

Song dynasty (960–1279)

Armoured Song cavalry
Main article: Military history of the Song dynasty

During the Song dynasty (960–1279) it became fashionable to create warts on pieces of armour to imitate cold forged steel, a product typically produced by non-Han people in modern Qinghai. Warts created from cold work were actually spots of higher carbon in the original steel, thus aesthetic warts on non-cold forged steel served no purpose. According to Shen Kuo, armour constructed of cold forged steel was impenetrable to arrows shot at a distance of 50 paces. Even if the arrow happened to hit a drill hole, the arrowhead was the one which was ruined.[62] However crossbows were still prized for their ability to penetrate heavy armour.[63]

The History of Song notes that Song "tools of war were exceedingly effective, never before seen in recent times,"[64] and "their weapons and armor were very good",[64] but "their troops weren't always effective."[64]

Western Xia (1038–1227)

File:Western Xia mail armour.jpg
Western Xia mail armour.

The Western Xia made modest use of heavy cavalry, of which it had 3,000 at its height.[65]

Jurchen Jin dynasty (1115–1234)

The Jurchens had a reputation for making high quality armour and weapons.[65] Both metal and quilted armour were worn by Jurchens. The Jurchen army was organized into units of a thousand and a hundred. Every hundred was composed of two fifty men social and economic units called punian. Each punian was supposed to have 20 men equipped with armour and lances or halberds. These 20 men formed a standard two rank five deep battle formation while the others formed three ranks of archers.[66]

In 1232 the Jurchens used cast iron bombs against the Mongols at the siege of Kaifeng. The History of Jin states that the fire created by the blast could penetrate even iron armour.[67]

Yuan dynasty (1271–1368)

See also: Mongolian armour

According to Meng Hong, the reason for the Mongols' success was that they possessed more iron than previous steppe peoples.[68]

Both Chinese and European sources concur that Mongols wore substantial armour capable of stopping arrows. A Song source notes that one way to pierce heavily clad Mongol warriors was to use small arrows capable of entering the eye slits of their helmet.[69] According to Thomas the Archdeacon, Mongol arrows were capable of penetrating all known types of armour at the time, but their own leather armour could withstand the arrows of their enemies. However he also mentions that the Mongols feared crossbows.[70]

Giovanni da Pian del Carpine describing Mongol lamellar armour:

The upper part of their helmet is of iron or steel, while that part guarding the neck and throat is of leather. Whereas the majority wear leather armour, some have their harness completely wrought from iron, which is made in the following manner. They beat out in large numbers thin iron plates a finger broad and a full hand long. In each they bore eight small holes, through which they pull three straight leather thongs. Thereupon they arrange these plates one above another, as it were, ascending by degrees, and tie the plates to the thongs mentioned by means of other small and tender thongs drawn through the holes. And in the upper part they fasten a single, small thong, doubled on each side, and sewn on to another, that the plates may be well and tightly knit together. Thus a uniform protection is effected by these plates, and such like armour is made for their horses as well as for their men. It is so highly polished that a man may mirror his face in it.[36]

— Giovanni da Pian del Carpine
  • Yuan brigandine
    Yuan brigandine
  • Yuan helmet
    Yuan helmet
  • Yuan helmet
    Yuan helmet
  • Yuan helmet
    Yuan helmet

Late imperial armour

Ming dynasty (1368–1644)

Ming warrior in mountain pattern armour
Guan Yu in mountain pattern armour
File:Ming soldiers wielding pikes and guandaos.jpg
Ming guards wearing scale/mail, lamellar, and mountain pattern armour.
Main article: Army of the Ming dynasty

During the Ming dynasty, most soldiers did not wear armour, which was reserved for officers and a small portion of the several hundred thousand strong army.[71] Horse armour was only used for a small portion of cavalry, which was itself a minute portion of the Ming army.[72]

Although armour never lost all meaning during the Ming dynasty, it became less and less important as the power of firearms became apparent. It was already acknowledged by the early Ming artillery officer Jiao Yu that guns "were found to behave like flying dragons, able to penetrate layers of armor."[73] Fully armoured soldiers could and were killed by guns. The Ming Marshall Cai was one such victim. An account from the enemy side states, "Our troops used fire tubes to shoot and fell him, and the great army quickly lifted him and carried him back to his fortifications."[74] It is possible that Chinese armour had some success in blocking musket balls later on during the Ming dynasty. According to the Japanese, during the Battle of Jiksan, the Chinese wore armour and used shields that were at least partially bulletproof.[75] Frederick Coyett later described Ming lamellar armour as providing complete protection from "small arms", although this is sometimes mistranslated as "rifle bullets".[76]

Some were armed with bows and arrows hanging down their backs ; others had nothing save a shield on the left arm and a good sword in the right hand ; while many wielded with both hands a formidable battle-sword fixed to a stick half the length of a man. Everyone was protected over the upper part of the body with a coat of iron scales, fitting below one another like the slates of a roof; the arms and legs being left bare. This afforded complete protection from rifle bullets (mistranslation-should read "small arms") and yet left ample freedom to move, as those coats only reached down to the knees and were very flexible at all the joints. The archers formed Koxinga's best troops, and much depended on them, for even at a distance they contrived to handle their weapons with so great skill that they very nearly eclipsed the riflemen. The shield bearers were used instead of cavalry. Every tenth man of them is a leader, who takes charge of, and presses his men on, to force themselves into the ranks of the enemy. With bent heads and their bodies hidden behind the shields, they try to break through the opposing ranks with such fury and dauntless courage as if each one had still a spare body left at home. They continually press onwards, notwithstanding many are shot down ; not stopping to consider, but ever rushing forward like mad dogs, not even looking round to see whether they are followed by their comrades or not. Those with the sword-sticks—called soapknives by the Hollanders—render the same service as our lancers in preventing all breaking through of the enemy, and in this way establishing perfect order in the ranks ; but when the enemy has been thrown into disorder, the Sword-bearers follow this up with fearful massacre amongst the fugitives.[76]

— Frederick Coyett

Rocket handlers often wore heavy armour for extra protection so that they could fire at close range.[77]

Brigandine armour

Brigandine armour (dingjia (Chinese: 釘甲; Pinyin: Dīng jiǎ)) was introduced during the Ming era and consisted of riveted plates covered with fabric.[72]

Plate armour

Partial plate armour in the form of a cuirass sewn together with fabric is mentioned in the Wubei Yaolue, 1638. It's not known how common plate armour was during the Ming dynasty, and no other source mentions it.[78]

  • Ming helmet, breastplate, and mask from the Wubei Yaolue
    Ming helmet, breastplate, and mask from the Wubei Yaolue
  • Ming arm guards, thigh armour, and back plate from the Wubei Yaolue
    Ming arm guards, thigh armour, and back plate from the Wubei Yaolue
  • Ming plate armour from the Wubei Yaolue
    Ming plate armour from the Wubei Yaolue

Qing dynasty (1636–1912)

In the 17th century the Qing army was equipped with both lamellar and brigandine armour.[79] After the conquest of China and peace was established in the majority of the empire, many soldiers became lazy and refused to wear armour. In the 18th century, the Qianlong Emperor said, "Our old Manchu customs respect righteousness and revere justice. Young and old, none are ashamed to fight for them. But after enjoying such a long period of peace, inevitably, people want to avoid putting on armor and joining the ranks of war."[80]

English literature in the early 19th century mentions Chinese rattan shields that were "almost musket proof",[81] however another English source in the late 19th century states that they did nothing to protect their users during an advance on a Muslim stronghold, in which they were all invariably shot to death.[59]

By the 19th century most Qing armour were purely for show. They kept the outer studs of brigandine armour for aesthetic purposes but omitted the protective iron plates.[82] According to one English source in the late 19th century, only the emperor's immediate body guard wore armour of any kind, and these guards were all nobles of the imperial family.[59]

  • Warring States helmet
    Warring States helmet
  • Qin helmet and armour
    Qin helmet and armour
  • Han bronze helmet
    Han bronze helmet
  • Nanyue iron lamellar armour
    Nanyue iron lamellar armour
  • Han lamellae
    Han lamellae
  • Tang warrior wearing cord and plaque armour
    Tang warrior wearing cord and plaque armour
  • Tang soldier wearing a tiger cap
    Tang soldier wearing a tiger cap
  • Ming pikemen wearing brigandine
    Ming pikemen wearing brigandine
  • Late Southern Ming lamellar armour
    Late Southern Ming lamellar armour
  • Late Southern Ming lamellar armour
    Late Southern Ming lamellar armour
  • Warring States shield (94.2cm tall, 60cm wide, 0.3cm thick)
    Warring States shield (94.2cm tall, 60cm wide, 0.3cm thick)
  • Han shieldbearer
    Han shieldbearer
  • Former Yan shieldbearers
    Former Yan shieldbearers
  • NS dynasties shieldbearer
    NS dynasties shieldbearer
  • NS dynasties shieldbearer
    NS dynasties shieldbearer
  • Tang shieldbearers
    Tang shieldbearers
  • Tang shieldbearer
    Tang shieldbearer
  • Tang shieldbearer
    Tang shieldbearer
  • Northern Song soldiers with shields
    Northern Song soldiers with shields
  • Dali shieldbearer
    Dali shieldbearer
  • Ming shieldbearer
    Ming shieldbearer
  • Ming "wolf troops" holding shields
    Ming "wolf troops" holding shields
  • Ming soldiers with shields
    Ming soldiers with shields
  • Ming shield fence
    Ming shield fence
  • Ming shields - hand, swallowtail, pushing
    Ming shields - hand, swallowtail, pushing
  • Ming "rattan" shield
    Ming "rattan" shield
  • Ming shield with fire arrow holders
    Ming shield with fire arrow holders
  • Ming shield equipped with fire lances
    Ming shield equipped with fire lances
  • Ming shieldbearers (bottom left)
    Ming shieldbearers (bottom left)
  • Ming soldiers with rattan shields
    Ming soldiers with rattan shields
  • Ming shields in Mandarin Duck Formation
    Ming shields in Mandarin Duck Formation
  • Qing soldiers with shields
    Qing soldiers with shields

See also

References

Citations

  1. ^ Dien 1981, p. 6.
  2. ^ Peers 2006, p. 20.
  3. ^ Peers 2006, p. 24.
  4. ^ Wagner 2008, p. 85.
  5. ^ a b c d Peers 2006, p. 39.
  6. ^ Dien 1981, p. 7.
  7. ^ Wagner 2008, p. 116.
  8. ^ Wagner 2008, p. 117.
  9. ^ Wager 2008, p. 117.
  10. ^ Robinson 2004, p. 10.
  11. ^ Han 2003, p. 101.
  12. ^ Lewis 2007, p. 38.
  13. ^ Peers 2013, p. 60.
  14. ^ Twitchett 2008, p. 50.
  15. ^ Peers 2006, p. 41.
  16. ^ Dien 1981, p. 8.
  17. ^ Portal 2007, p. 170, 181.
  18. ^ Portal 2007, p. 145, 170.
  19. ^ Portal 2007, p. 183.
  20. ^ Dien 1981, p. 13.
  21. ^ Peers 2006, p. 75.
  22. ^ Wagner 2008, p. 225.
  23. ^ Crespigny 2017, p. 159.
  24. ^ https://books.google.com.tw/books?id=-3myDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT301&dq=han+dynasty+hook+shield&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwijpfuqiZzoAhXPGaYKHdO0CLEQ6AEIQTAD#v=onepage&q=han%20dynasty%20hook%20shield&f=false
  25. ^ a b c Graff 2002, p. 42.
  26. ^ Peers 2006, p. 83.
  27. ^ Peers 2006, p. 146.
  28. ^ de Crespigny 2010, p. 142.
  29. ^ Wagner 2008, p. 322.
  30. ^ Dien 1981, p. 16.
  31. ^ Dien 1981, p. 17.
  32. ^ Peers 2006, p. 91.
  33. ^ a b Dien 1981, p. 21.
  34. ^ a b Peers 2006, p. 94.
  35. ^ Peers 2006, p. 99.
  36. ^ a b c Robinson 2013.
  37. ^ Wagner 2008, p. 256.
  38. ^ Peers 2006, p. 115.
  39. ^ Graff 2002, p. 147.
  40. ^ Graff 2002, p. 158.
  41. ^ Graff 2002, p. 173.
  42. ^ Graff 2016, p. 51.
  43. ^ Graff 2002, p. 193.
  44. ^ Graff 2002, p. 197.
  45. ^ Graff 2016, p. 41.
  46. ^ Graff 2016, p. 106.
  47. ^ Graff 2016, p. 39.
  48. ^ Graff 2002, p. 176.
  49. ^ Peers 2006, p. 116.
  50. ^ Graff 2016, p. 161.
  51. ^ Graff 2016, p. 53.
  52. ^ Liu, Yonghua (刘永华) (September 2003), Ancient Chinese Armour (中国古代军戎服饰), Shanghai: Shanghai Chinese Classics Publishing House (上海古籍出版社), p. 174, ISBN 7-5325-3536-3
  53. ^ The myths of Shan Wen Kia, retrieved 21 March 2018
  54. ^ Liu, Yonghua (刘永华) (September 2003), Ancient Chinese Armour (中国古代军戎服饰), Shanghai: Shanghai Chinese Classics Publishing House (上海古籍出版社), pp. 63–64, ISBN 7-5325-3536-3
  55. ^ The myths of Shan Wen Kia, retrieved 21 March 2018
  56. ^ Lorge 2015, p. 84.
  57. ^ Kurz 2011, p. 106.
  58. ^ Paper armours of the Ming Dynasty, retrieved 19 May 2018
  59. ^ a b c Mesny 1896, p. 334.
  60. ^ Peers 2006, p. 132.
  61. ^ Whiting 2002, p. 305.
  62. ^ Wagner 2008, p. 322-323.
  63. ^ Wright 2005, p. 59.
  64. ^ a b c Andrade 2016, p. 22.
  65. ^ a b Peers 2006, p. 135.
  66. ^ Peers 2006, p. 137.
  67. ^ Peers 2006, p. 143.
  68. ^ Peers 2013, p. 149.
  69. ^ Andrade 2016, p. 48.
  70. ^ Jackson 2005, p. 71.
  71. ^ Peers 2006, p. 208.
  72. ^ a b Peers 2006, p. 185.
  73. ^ Andrade 2016, p. 57.
  74. ^ Andrade 2016, p. 67.
  75. ^ Swope 2009, p. 248.
  76. ^ a b Coyet 1975, p. 51.
  77. ^ Peers 2006, p. 184.
  78. ^ ""Plate" armour of the Ming Dynasty". Retrieved 7 July 2018.
  79. ^ Peers 2006, p. 216.
  80. ^ Perdue 2005, p. 274.
  81. ^ Wood 1830, p. 159.
  82. ^ Peers 2006, p. 232.

Works cited

  • Andrade, Tonio (2016), The Gunpowder Age: China, Military Innovation, and the Rise of the West in World History, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-13597-7.
  • Coyet, Frederic (1975), Neglected Formosa: a translation from the Dutch of Frederic Coyett's Verwaerloosde Formosa
  • Crespigny, Rafe de (2017), Fire Over Luoyang: A History of the Later Han Dynasty, 23-220 AD, Brill
  • Dien, Albert (1981), A Study of Early Chinese Armor
  • Graff, David A. (2002), Medieval Chinese Warfare, 300-900, Routledge
  • Graff, David A. (2016), The Eurasian Way of War: Military practice in seventh-century China and Byzantium, Routledge
  • Han, Fei (2003), Han Feizi: Basic Writings, Columbia University Press
  • Jackson, Peter (2005), The Mongols and the West, Pearson Education Limited
  • Kurz, Johannes L. (2011), China's Southern Tang Dynasty, 937-976, Routledge
  • Lewis, Mark Edward (2007), The Early Chinese Empires: Qin and Han, The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press
  • Lorge, Peter (2015), The Reunification of China: Peace through War under the Song Dynasty, Cambridge University Press
  • Mesny, William (1896), Mesny's Chinese Miscellany
  • Peers, C.J. (2006), Soldiers of the Dragon: Chinese Armies 1500 BC - AD 1840, Osprey Publishing Ltd
  • Peers, Chris (2013), Battles of Ancient China, Pen & Sword Military
  • Perdue, Peter C. (2005), China Marches West, The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press
  • Portal, Jane (2007), The First Emperor: China's Terracotta Army, Harvard University Press
  • Robinson, K.G. (2004), Science and Civilization in China Volume 7 Part 2: General Conclusions and Reflections, Cambridge University Press
  • Robinson, H. Russell (2013), Oriental Armour, Dover Publications
  • Swope, Kenneth M. (2009), A Dragon's Head and a Serpent's Tail: Ming China and the First Great East Asian War, 1592–1598, University of Oklahoma Press
  • Twitchett, Denis (2008), The Cambridge History of China: Volume 1, Cambridge University Press
  • Wagner, Donald B. (2008), Science and Civilization in China Volume 5-11: Ferrous Metallurgy, Cambridge University Press
  • Whiting, Marvin C. (2002), Imperial Chinese Military History, Writers Club Press
  • Wood, W. W. (1830), Sketches of China
  • Wright, David (2005), From War to Diplomatic Parity in Eleventh Century China, Brill
  • Ancient Chinese Armies: 1500-200BC C.J. Peers, Illustrated by Angus McBridge, Osprey Publishing «Men-at-arms», ISBN 0-85045-942-7
  • Imperial Chinese Armies (1): 200BC-AD589 C.J. Peers, Illustrated by Michael Perry, Osprey Publishing «Men-at-arms», ISBN 1-85532-514-4
  • Imperial Chinese Armies (2): 590-1260AD C.J. Peers, Illustrated by Michael Perry, Osprey Publishing «Men-at-arms», ISBN 1-85532-599-3
  • Medieval Chinese Armies: 1260-1520 C.J. Peers, Illustrated by David Sque, Osprey Publishing «Men-at-arms», ISBN 1-85532-254-4
  • Late Imperial Chinese Armies: 1520-1840 C.J. Peers, Illustrated by Christa Hook, Osprey Publishing «Men-at-arms», ISBN 1-85532-655-8
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