Newfoundland and Labrador–Quebec border

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Map of Quebec, drawn according to the standards set by the provincial government. Two boundaries may be seen to the south of Labrador – one on the 52nd parallel (recognized by Canada and Newfoundland) and the other on the watershed (claimed by Quebec)

The border between Quebec and Newfoundland and Labrador, both marine[a] and terrestrial, separates the provinces of Quebec and Newfoundland and Labrador in Canada. It is the longest interprovincial border in Canada, at more than 3,500 kilometres (2,200 mi) long on the land alone. Starting from the north, it follows the Laurentian Divide (the divide between the drainage basin of the Atlantic Ocean and of the Arctic Ocean) on the Labrador Peninsula (but not on Killiniq Island, where Newfoundland and Labrador borders Nunavut) for the majority of the border's length, then follows the divide between the St. Lawrence River's basin and Atlantic Ocean's other rivers' basin, and finishes at Blanc-Sablon in the southeast.

The division between Labrador and Quebec has changed over time. Labrador's coast was recognized to be part of Newfoundland (with a small break) since 1763, but the legal meaning of the word "coast" came to be disputed. A conflict erupted in 1902 over the right to use natural resources in the Churchill River basin, which ultimately was ruled in Newfoundland's favour, following a decision of the Privy Council in London in 1927. The decision was further recognized by Canada and Newfoundland when the latter entered Confederation in 1949 as the tenth province of Canada. While the line was delineated, it is still not demarcated.

The land boundary is disputed by Quebec, whose officials at various times alleged that the procedure was flawed and the judges could be biased. The province also shows this dispute on maps; however, the federal government does not recognize that claim, and legal scholars have suggested political negotiations to resolve the problem. The uncertain, winding border also made resources exploitation difficult, and has separated mining and First Nations communities on either side of the border.

The maritime border's existence (and its delineation) is contested between the federal government and the provinces. According to Quebec, the Gulf of St. Lawrence is split equally between Quebec and Newfoundland; Newfoundland also recognizes the existence of the border between provinces but says its course is yet undetermined; Canada, in contrast, says the waters belong to the federal government and the border therefore does not exist. The border splits the Old Harry oil field, which necessitates negotiation over the extent of exploitation and sharing of profits.

Land border

Evolution of Quebec's territory in 1867–1927

Before 1927

The dependency of Labrador, which at the time comprised the Labrador coast, was created in 1763 and given to the colony of Newfoundland by a royal proclamation, so that it could administer fishing rights.[1] Eleven years later, the Quebec Act gave the Province of Quebec control over all territories, islands and lands that had been appropriated to Newfoundland in 1763, but Newfoundland nevertheless continued to regulate fishing.[1] This created tensions between the colonies, as Newfoundland no longer had any authority over the area; these were resolved in 1809, when, after lobbying by Newfoundland, the territories it lost in 1774 were returned.[1] The southern border on Labrador's coast was defined by the British North America (Seignioral Rights) Act of 1825, which moved Lower Canada's border east from the Saint-Jean River to Blanc-Sablon. Lower Canada also gained territories from the coast up to 52nd parallel north.[1]

Map of Newfoundland with the narrow strip of Labrador coast, 1912

At Confederation, Quebec became a province of the Dominion of Canada and took the borders of Lower Canada (whose northern border was limited at the Laurentian Divide), which had been part of the larger Province of Canada since 1840. That meant that it still shared the border with Labrador, a dependency of Newfoundland; however, the border was not clearly nor officially delimited.[2]

Louis-Alexandre Taschereau, then Premier of Quebec, in London lobbying for Quebec in the Labrador dispute, October 1926

Two expansions happened following Confederation. In 1898, Quebec and Canada adopted the Quebec Boundary Extension Act, 1898, which extended the northern frontier to Eastmain River, which meant annexing a part of Labrador known as Ashuanipi (most of the southwestern part of the region); however, the area was not defined precisely, so the border remained officially undefined.[3] Nine years later, Quebec requested expansion of its territory further north to include the district of Ungava, which was granted by the Quebec Boundaries Extension Act, 1912. However, the border was still unclear; the act defined the border in the eastern part of Labrador as neighboring the area "over which the island of Newfoundland has lawful jurisdiction".[4]

In 1924–25, Newfoundland proposed to sell interests in the eastern part of the peninsula to Canada for $15–30 million (CA$225–450 million in 2021 dollars), but Quebec Premier Louis-Alexandre Taschereau refused, believing the territory lawfully belonged to Canada (and thus Quebec), and decided to wait for the Privy Council's decision.[5][6][7] It then repeated its offer after a favourable Privy Council decision, this time to Canada, asking $110 million (CA$1.91 billion in 2021 dollars) for the land, but that deal was also rejected.[8]

Judicial determination of the boundary

Labrador Boundary Dispute
CourtJudicial Committee of the Privy Council
Full case nameIn the Matter of the Boundary Between the Dominion of Canada and the Colony of Newfoundland in the Labrador Peninsula
Decided1 March 1927
Citation(s)[1927] UKPC 25, [1927] A.C. 695
Transcript(s)[1] [2]
Case history
Appealed fromSupreme Court of Canada, Supreme Court of Newfoundland
Court membership
Judges sittingViscount Haldane, Lord Finlay, Lord Sumner, Lord Warrington of Clyffe
Case opinions
Decision byViscount Haldane
Keywords
Labrador boundary

In 1888, a trial judge in Labrador advised his superiors in St. John's that the border of Labrador was not clearly defined and urged them to settle it, citing a murder trial in which the defendant moved to dismiss the proceedings due to lack of jurisdiction. The issue was not perceived at the time to be a high-priority one, but it was agreed that some definitions would be needed.[8]

In 1902, a conflict erupted between Quebec, which was part of the Dominion of Canada, and Newfoundland, a colony of the United Kingdom, when Newfoundland issued a timber license for a Nova Scotian company on the Churchill River.[9] Quebec said the act of 1898 had granted them possession over most of Labrador and therefore the license must have been issued by Quebec's authorities and must have conformed to its laws. The company, on the other hand, contended that Newfoundland claimed all territories north of the 52th parallel north and east of the 64th meridian west, so it did not violate anything.[1] Being unable to agree, the Quebec's minister of Lands, Mines and Fisheries, Simon-Napoléon Parent, asked the Canadian government to refer the question to the Privy Council for arbitration. (At that time, the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council was the court of last resort having jurisdiction over disputes between two possessions of the United Kingdom).[10] The case was not taken up until 1922, when the Privy Council went on to determine "the location and definition of the boundary as between Canada and Newfoundland in the Labrador Peninsula under the statutes, orders-in-council and proclamations".[9] However, the court was not tasked with drawing a new boundary, but only with issuing an interpretation of existing documents regulating Quebec's and Labrador's border to determine the possession of the Churchill River basin.[11]

Privy Council decision

The oral arguments were held in 1927. Canada, representing Quebec's interests, tried to demonstrate that the Dominion of Newfoundland only received by proclamation a strip of land extending 1.0 mi (1.6 km) from the coast so that it could control the coastal fisheries, while the interior part of Labrador, was, according to proclamation, a part of Indian territory.[1] On the other hand, Newfoundland argued that the term "coast", which was used in communications with different governors, showed that a larger portion of territory was meant than just a narrow coastal strip, and that precedent showed that "coast" also referred to the drainage basin.[12]

On 1 March 1927, the judicial committee returned its decision, defining the frontier between Canada and Newfoundland as being:

[...] a line drawn due north from the eastern boundary of the bay or harbour of Ance Sablon as far as the fifty-second degree of north latitude, and from thence westward along that parallel until it reaches the Romaine river, and then northward along the left or east bank of that river and its head waters to their source and from thence due north to the crest of the watershed or height of land there, and from thence westward and northward along the crest of the watershed of the rivers flowing into the Atlantic Ocean until it reaches Cape Chidley [...]

The Privy Council ruled that the word "territory" (and not necessarily "coast"), used in documents of the time, must have included a larger portion of the peninsula than Canada contended. At the same time, it made some corrections of the border that were not requested, as well as some errors. On the one hand, as Patrick McGrath noted, Canada's (and Quebec's) eastern border on the Gulf of St. Lawrence was moved 1.5 mi (2.4 km) eastward, effectively granting 60 sq mi (160 km2) of land to Canada.[12] On the other hand, Henri Dorion [fr], a Quebec geographer, stated that Cape Chidley was on Killiniq Island, which was never part of Quebec, but belonged to the Northwest Territories (now Nunavut). Moreover, the Privy Council drew the line on the 52th parallel north instead of on the watershed; making the Council "recognise as Newfoundland's a territory bigger than it asked for, which in legal settings is called an ultra petita decision".[13] The Council's border also divided the Innu and other First Nations, whose future it did not take into consideration.[6][14]

As a result of such changes, the boundary between Quebec and Newfoundland and Labrador has become the longest interprovincial boundary in Canada, at over 3,500 km (2,200 mi).[9]

Newfoundland enters Confederation

When Newfoundland entered Confederation in March 1949, the Newfoundland Act (then known as British North America Act 1949) specified that

The Province of Newfoundland shall comprise the same territory as at the date of Union, that is to say, the island of Newfoundland and the islands adjacent thereto, the Coast of Labrador as delimited in the report delivered by the Judicial Committee of His Majesty's Privy Council on the first day of March, 1927, and approved by His Majesty in His Privy Council on the twenty-second day of March, 1927, and the islands adjacent to the said Coast of Labrador.

— Section 2, British North America Act 1949

Therefore, the law stipulated that the borders as determined in the 1927 Privy Council decision were recognised by Canada and Newfoundland and from that time became internal rather than international borders.

Land border dispute

Line A: the boundary decided by the Privy Council; the current legal boundary. Line B: the boundary as it is often claimed by Quebec's government today (for example: Duplessis)

Problems with demarcation

According to the 1927 Privy Council decision in London, the land border's shape was in part defined by the Laurentian divide. According to Henri Dorion and Jean-Paul Lacasse, cartographers and geographers have stated that it was impossible to define the exact border based on the Privy Council's ruling, as there are polyrheic areas (belonging to both river basins at the same time) and arheic areas (belonging to neither). Other issues also exist; therefore, they argue that the possession of these areas should be negotiated during demarcation.[15][16]

Moreover, the area between the 52nd parallel north and the watershed is subject to an active dispute, as Quebec insists that the region was granted despite Newfoundland not requesting it (ultra petita). Legal scholars say this argument may have merit, but only a political resolution to the problem is possible.[13][17]

Position of Canada and the province of Newfoundland and Labrador

The government of Newfoundland and Labrador believes that the Privy Council decision has legal force, further arguing that since Quebec did not oppose Newfoundland's entering Confederation in 1949, it tacitly recognized the border. It also cites the Constitution Act, 1982, which contains the Newfoundland Act, to confirm it.[18] In 2007, John Ottenheimer, N.L. minister for intergovernmental affairs, said in relation to the Labrador border:[19]

Our province has written Quebec in the past on this issue but we take comfort in the fact that the Constitution is on our side and the law is on the side of this province, and we know where the border exists.

In cartographical representations of the country, the federal government also uses the border with a straight line at the 52nd parallel north.[20]

Position of Quebec

Quebec has never officially recognised the decision of the Privy Council. Several theories and accusations have been put forward to explain the unfavourable ruling: the judges' alleged conflict of interest (either by favoring the colony of Newfoundland to the more autonomous Dominion of Canada, or by having financial stakes in mining companies), the lack of representation of Quebec, or the will to award more than was asked for, which resonate in Quebec's society.[15][21] As the provincial government rejects the Privy Council's ruling, this has become a sensitive issue. Indeed, René Lévesque, who founded the sovereigntist Parti Québécois in the 1970s, referred to the ruling as a "judicial theft" and "judicial occupation".[22] Later, in 2001, when Newfoundland sought to amend the Constitution Act 1982 by changing its official name to Newfoundland and Labrador, Quebec's minister of intergovernmental affairs and the minister of natural resources made a statement, which said:[23]

First of all, the ministers remind that no Quebec government has formally recognized the boundary between Quebec and Newfoundland on the Labrador Peninsula as defined by the opinion issued by the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in London in 1927. For Quebec, the border has therefore never been legally binding. (...) The ministers [would like to] stress that the government of Newfoundland and the federal government have recently confirmed to the government of Quebec that said modification [of adding "and Labrador" to Newfoundland's name] was only a symbolic name change and for that reason would not entail any territorial or border changes. (...) As far as the question of the boundary between Quebec and Newfoundland on the Labrador Peninsula goes, the ministers remind that the position of the government of Quebec stays the same as the one of previous governments.

— Jacques Brassard, minister of natural resources of Quebec and Joseph Facal, minister of Canadian intergovernmental relations of Quebec

With Quebec contesting Labrador's possession, it also sought to assert its position on maps. While these do not have any legal value, in the sense that they do not officially define the border, they show the official position of the province in the dispute. Quebec uses a special set of instructions to designate the borders in general and with Labrador in particular.[24] Namely, it says that:

  • the territory of Labrador must appear but should not be expressly identified;
  • the border symbol used for the border between Labrador and Quebec must be different from other interprovincial or international boundaries (in the legend, they propose to name it "Quebec-Newfoundland and Labrador border (this border is not binding)", French: Frontière Québec−Terre-Neuve-et-Labrador (cette frontière n’est pas définitive));
  • on the length of the border with Labrador, two markers saying "1927 delineation of the Privy Council (non-binding)" (French: Tracé de 1927 du Conseil privé (non définitif)) must be put, one of which on the 52nd parallel and the other north of Schefferville, whenever possible; otherwise Labrador must be coloured in a way that does not offer too much contrast with Quebec.
  • Quebec's territory should be colored to the watershed, rather than to the 52nd parallel north. Both Quebec's claimed border and the Privy Council delineation, however, should appear.

Legal scholars have generally considered Quebec's claims and accusations to be dubious at best and frivolous at worst. While they said that ultra petita claims might have some merits and could therefore serve as a possible justification for partial adjustment of the border (though not through the court system), they state that the Privy Council decision is binding and has full legal force, dismissing allegations of conflict of interest or lack of representation of Quebec as unproven or not valid reasons to review it.[15][16][17] Henri Dorion further stressed that the government of Quebec had implicitly recognized the Privy Council delineation in several separate instances,[21] for example in the case of Iron Ore Company of Canada, which tried to make estimates of the amount of provincial taxes due to exploitation of the natural resources and whose estimates Quebec accepted.[13]

Maritime border dispute

See also: Canadian maritime law, Law of the sea, and Admiralty law

Background

Old Harry oil field [fr], on the boundary between Quebec and Newfoundland and Labrador

The maritime border between Quebec and Newfoundland and Labrador, unlike the land border, has never been defined by statute or a regulation between the provinces and the federal government. In 1964 and 1972, the Atlantic provinces and Quebec agreed on division of issuing permits for fossil fuel searching and drilling by fixing the limits of their jurisdiction on the line equidistant from the shores of the provinces.[25][26] However, this division depends on the assumption that the waters are in fact the internal waters of Canada. In the case when the waters of the Gulf of St. Lawrence are international, there are no provincial borders as such; and even if these are recognized as internal waters, the possession of the area (federal or provincial) is far from certain; in the case of federal waters, no provincial boundaries are in place again. The federal government has a general agreement on profit sharing from the resources near the shore of Newfoundland and Labrador, but not Quebec.[26]

Federal government's position

The federal government asserts that the Gulf of St. Lawrence's waters are internal federal waters,[26] meaning that the territory is not subject to international maritime regulations and that only the federal government has jurisdiction over the area. However, Canada's position on the subject is not firm as an explicit statement on the subject could "on the one hand, attract a rebuke of principle from the United States, and, on the other, revive claims – regardless of their legal soundness – of the maritime provinces over the rights to exploit seabed resources".[27] That said, according to the federal government, which has pronounced more and more acts asserting sovereignty over the waters, the territories of Quebec and Newfoundland and Labrador end at the seashore.[28]

Position of Newfoundland and Labrador

In a 2003 speech, Newfoundland's minister of Mines and Energy, Ed Byrne, announced that the province intended to reach an agreement with Quebec, trying to strike a deal similar to the one its government has set with Nova Scotia.[29] In March 2010, Kathy Dunderdale, then Premier of Newfoundland and Labrador, stated that the border was yet to be defined and that the 1964 agreements have never been ratified. That said, she expressed joy upon news that Quebec and Canada agreed on the terms of exploitation of the resources in the Old Harry oil field in 2011,[30] the exact shares of which are to be determined by arbitration. However, in July 2020, the Supreme Court of Newfoundland and Labrador revoked the permission to exploit the oil field on Newfoundland's side, siding with environmentalists.[31]

Position of Quebec

Quebec recognizes the maritime border with other Atlantic provinces, including Newfoundland and Labrador, as being equidistant from the shores of the provinces.[32] In fact, according to the provincial authorities, the government considers the 1964 and 1972 agreements on sea borders with New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island and Newfoundland and Labrador binding.[13] In 1969, minister of natural resources Paul Allard said of the agreements reached with other provinces:[33]

Minister Allard speaking [...] on behalf of Quebec [...] stated that the Province of Quebec had already accepted the boundaries as they were outlined by the four Atlantic provinces before Quebec was part of the original group. Quebec accepted these boundaries in good faith and further in good faith undertook certain actions and made certain commitments concerning the area within these boundaries. Quebec has at all times considered these boundaries as part of Quebec and there is no good reason why it should decide otherwise now. Quebec accepted the boundaries at the request of the four Atlantic Provinces, which request was considered by Quebec to have been seriously made and no one has objected to its actions or activities within those boundaries.

Impact

The border between Newfoundland and Labrador and Quebec, apart from being partially disputed, often disrupts services if these are straddled across the border and no agreements exist on them, or if the governments close the border. For instance, after the agreement on health services in mining settlements of Fermont and Labrador City (25 km (16 mi) apart) expired, childbirth operations had to be made in Sept-Îles, where prospective mothers had to be delivered by plane, as the city is 300 km (190 mi) away from Fermont.[34] As the COVID-19 pandemic struck Canada, the provincial borders were closed for two months, impairing travel between border communities.[35]

The border dispute, as well as the Churchill Falls project by Hydro-Québec also contributed to animosity between residents and governments of the two provinces. In the 1960s, Jean Lesage, then Premier of Quebec, proposed to tie better conditions of the Hydro-Québec deal with Newfoundland (which Newfoundland now perceives as unfair) in exchange for resolution of the border conflict in Quebec's favour, which idea the Newfoundlanders did not like, either.[36] Newfoundland's[19][37] and Quebec's[38] officials often express anger or disappointment over the what they see as wrong maps.[39]

Notes

  1. ^ The federal government claims that the maritime border does not exist; see the relevant section.

See also

External links

  • Documents related to the Privy Council decision in 1927
  • Boisvert, Yves (2018-11-10). "Le Labrador perdu". La Presse+ (in French). Retrieved 2021-08-08.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  • Labrador boundary dispute as seen by the right-wing sovereigntists (in French)
  • An episode from Historia channel series Les 30 journées qui ont fait le Québec [fr] (2000) on Youtube (in French)

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f Hiller, J.K. (1997). "The Labrador Boundary". Heritage Newfoundland & Labrador. Retrieved 2021-08-07.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  2. ^ Cardin, Jean-François; Couture, Claude; Allaire, Gratien (1996). Histoire du Canada. Espace et différence (in French). Montreal: Presse de l'Université Laval. p. 60. ISBN 2-7637-7444-X.
  3. ^ "L'Atlas du Canada. Évolution territoriale, 1898". Natural Resources Canada (in French). 2009-03-18. Archived from the original on 2011-08-19. Retrieved 2021-08-08.
  4. ^ British North America Acts 1867–1907 (PDF). Ottawa: C. H. Parmelee. 1913. pp. 235–236.
  5. ^ Vézina, Valérie (2019). "Uneasy Neighbours: Quebec-Newfoundland and Labrador's Relationship" (PDF). Canadian Political Science Association. Retrieved 2021-08-08.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  6. ^ a b Cadigan, Sean (2017-06-22). Newfoundland and Labrador: A History. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-1-4875-1677-2.
  7. ^ Brown, Drew (2021-08-08). "Quebec and Newfoundland Are Waging a Shady Cold War Over a Mountain". Vice. Retrieved 2021-08-08.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  8. ^ a b McEwen, Alec (June 1982). "The Labrador Boundary". The Canadian Surveyor. 36 (2): 173–182. doi:10.1139/tcs-1982-0019. ISSN 0008-5103.
  9. ^ a b c McEwen, Alec C. (2006-02-07). "Labrador Boundary Dispute". The Canadian Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2021-08-08.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  10. ^ Parent, Simon-Napoléon (2013). REPORT BY THE MINISTER OF LANDS, QUEBEC, re DISPUTED TERRITORY (PDF). Newfoundland and Labrador Heritage. pp. 138–139.
  11. ^ H., A. R. (1927). "The Labrador Boundary". The Geographical Journal. 70 (1): 38–43. doi:10.2307/1781882. ISSN 0016-7398. JSTOR 1781882.
  12. ^ a b McGrath, Patrick T. (1927). "The Labrador Boundary Decision". Geographical Review. 17 (4): 643–660. doi:10.2307/208004. ISSN 0016-7428. JSTOR 208004.
  13. ^ a b c d Dorion, Henri; Lacasse, Jean-Paul (2011). Le Québec : territoire incertain. Quebec City: Septentrion. pp. 20–23, 84–89. ISBN 9782896646210.
  14. ^ Andrew Klain, John; Levesque, Mario (2019-02-28). "Revisiting the Labrador Boundary Decision to Include Indigenous Interpretations of the Region". Journal of Canadian Studies. 53 (1): 123–151. doi:10.3138/jcs.2018-0007. ISSN 0021-9495.
  15. ^ a b c Dorion, Henri (2001-12-07). "Mise à jour de l'étude intitulée "Les frontières du Québec : l'état de la question"" (PDF). Commission d'étude des questions afférentes à l'accession du Québec à la souveraineté. pp. 15–23. Retrieved 2021-08-08.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  16. ^ a b Lacasse, Jean-Paul (1979). "L'état des frontières du Québec". Revue générale de droit (in French). 10 (1): 330. doi:10.7202/1060002ar. ISSN 0035-3086.
  17. ^ a b Leroux, Tara (1995). "Les frontières terrestres d'un Québec souverain à la lumière du droit international contemporain" [Land borders of a sovereign Quebec in light of contemporary international law] (PDF). University of Sherbrooke (in Canadian French). pp. 264–265. Retrieved 2021-08-08.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  18. ^ "Which Provinces Border Newfoundland And Labrador?". WorldAtlas. Retrieved 2021-08-08.
  19. ^ a b "Dispute flares up again over Quebec-Labrador border". Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. 2007-01-22. Retrieved 2021-08-08.
  20. ^ "Median after-tax income of households by census subdivision with population ecumene". open.canada.ca. Retrieved 2021-08-08.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  21. ^ a b Dorion, Henri (1991). Les frontières du Québec : l'état de la question. Quebec City: National Assembly of Quebec. pp. 367–371.
  22. ^ "Lévesque sur le Labrador". Radio-Canada. 1968-10-15. Retrieved 2021-08-08 – via YouTube.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  23. ^ "Le ministre des Ressources naturelles du Québec et le ministre délégué aux Affaires intergouvernementales canadiennes expriment la position du Québec relativement à la modification de la désignation constitutionnelle de Terre-Neuve". Quebec Secretariat of Canadian intergovernmental affairs (in French). 2001-10-31. Archived from the original on 2005-04-28. Retrieved 2021-08-08.
  24. ^ "PROGRAMME D'IDENTIFICATION CARTOGRAPHIQUE (PIC) – Cadre de référence sur l'habillage. Octobre 2010" (PDF). Quebec Ministry of Natural Resources and Fauna (in French). October 2010. p. 35. Retrieved 2021-08-08.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  25. ^ Labrecque, Georges (1993). "La frontière maritime du Québec dans le golfe du Saint-Laurent". Cahiers de géographie du Québec (in French). 37 (101): 183–218. doi:10.7202/022342ar. ISSN 0007-9766.
  26. ^ a b c "Gulf of St. Lawrence: Human Systems Overview Report" (PDF). Fisheries and Oceans Canada. 2010. pp. 51–60. Retrieved 2021-08-08.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  27. ^ Rigaldies, Francis (1986). "Le statut du golfe du Saint-Laurent en droit international public". Canadian Yearbook of International Law. 23: 80–171. doi:10.1017/s006900580001328x. ISSN 0069-0058.
  28. ^ Guibault, Lucie (1989). "Le statut des espaces maritimes intéressant le Québec en droit international et en droit constitutionnel" (PDF). Revue québécoise de droit international (in French): 157–168.
  29. ^ Byrne, Ed (2003-12-15). "Speaking Notes: Ed Byrne, Minister of Mines and Energy, Newfoundland and Labrador Ocean Industries Association Luncheon". Government of Newfoundland and Labrador. Archived from the original on 2021-07-31. Retrieved 2021-08-08.
  30. ^ "Gisement Old Harry : " Une entente historique "". Radio-Canada.ca (in Canadian French). 2011. Retrieved 2021-08-08.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  31. ^ "Exploration du gisement Old Harry : victoire des écologistes en Cour suprême". Radio-Canada.ca (in Canadian French). 2020-07-08. Retrieved 2021-08-08.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  32. ^ "La frontière dans le golfe du Saint-Laurent". Ministry of Natural Resources and Fauna of Quebec. Archived from the original on 2012-02-06. Retrieved 2021-08-08.
  33. ^ "Newfoundland and Labrador v. Nova Scotia, Award of the Tribunal in the First Phase, 17 May 2001". jusmundi.com. 2001-05-17. Retrieved 2021-08-08.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  34. ^ Simard, Martin (2017). "La frontière Québec-Labrador : quels effets sur le développement des ressources et des populations du Nord?". VertigO : La revue électronique en sciences de l'environnement (in French). 17 (2). ISSN 1492-8442.
  35. ^ "Parts of Labrador-Quebec border open for interprovincial travel". Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. 2020-06-26. Retrieved 2021-08-08.
  36. ^ Feehan, James P. (2010-09-01). "The Churchill Falls contract and why Newfoundlanders can't get over it". Policy Options. Retrieved 2021-08-08.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  37. ^ "Quebec election map revives controversy over Labrador border dispute". Global News. 2014-04-08. Retrieved 2021-08-08.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  38. ^ Grondin, Marie-Renée. "Quand le PQ utilise une carte du Québec avec la mauvaise délimitation territoriale..." Le Journal de Québec. Retrieved 2021-08-08.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  39. ^ "Why peace won't come quickly for Quebec and Newfoundland and Labrador". Maclean's. 2016-12-04. Retrieved 2021-08-08.

Further reading

  • Dorion, Henri (1963). "La frontière Québec-Terreneuve. Contribution à l'étude systématique des frontières". Travaux et documents du Centre d'études nordiques (in French). Quebec City: Presses de l’Université Laval. OCLC 299721822.
  • Patenaude, Luce (1972). Le Labrador à l'heure de la contestation. Montreal: Presses de l'Université de Montréal.
  • Dorion, Henri; Lacasse, Jean-Paul (2011). Le Québec : territoire incertain. Quebec City: Septentrion. ISBN 9782896646210.
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