Jump to content

Decline in wild mammal populations

Add links
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Biomass of mammals on Earth as of 2018[1][2]

  Livestock, mostly cattle and pigs (60%)
  Humans (36%)
  Wild mammals (4%)

The decline of wild mammal populations globally has been an occurrence spanning over the past 50,000 years, at the same time as the populations of humans and livestock have increased. Nowadays, the total biomass of wild mammals on land is believed to be seven times lower than its prehistoric values, while the biomass of marine mammals had declined fivefold. At the same time, the biomass of humans is "an order of magnitude higher than that of all wild mammals", and the biomass of livestock mammals like pigs and cattle is even larger than that. Even as wild mammals had declined, the growth in the numbers of humans and livestock had increased total mammal biomass fourfold. Only 4% of that increased number are wild mammals, while livestock and humans amount to 60% and 36%. Alongside the simultaneous halving of plant biomass, these striking declines are considered part of the prehistoric phase of the Holocene extinction.[2][1]

Since the second half of the 20th century, a range of protected areas and other wildlife conservation efforts (such as the Repopulation of wolves in Midwestern United States) have been implemented. These have had some impact on preserving wild mammal numbers.[3] There is still some debate over the total extent of recent declines in wild mammals and other vertebrate species.[4][5] In any case, many species are now in a worse state than decades ago.[6] Hundreds of species are critically endangered.[7][8] Climate change also has negative impacts on land mammal populations.[3]

Declines in geologic and prehistoric timeframes

[edit]
Main article: Quaternary extinction event

Historically, the Quaternary extinction event was the most dramatic episode of wild mammal decline, as it saw the disappearance of appromixately half of all terrestrial mammal species with a body mass greater than 40 kg.[2] Statistically, this meant a 14% reduction in the average body size of wildlife over the past 125,000 years.[9][10][11] While some researchers attribute that eradication of all non-African megafauna to prehistoric climate change,[12][13][14] most now believe it was wholly or predominantly driven by human activity.[15][16][17][18][19][20] Many wild mammal species continued to decline at a slower rate afterwards. Prominent examples on land include the collapse of historic American bison herds on the Great Plains,[21] or the extinction of a wide range of small marsupials in Australia.[22] On sea, whaling drove similarly severe declines in the numbers of marine mammals.[23] The total numbers of wild mammals are unlikely to recover to anywhere near their prehistoric peaks, as the historic replacement of forests and wetlands with cropland and pasture means that the Earth's carrying capacity for wild terrestrial species will remain lowered unless it is reversed.[24]

The percentage of [megafauna on different land masses over time, with the arrival of humans indicated.
[edit]
2 extinct in the wild mammalian species (0.03%)203 critically endangered mammalian species (3.5%)505 endangered mammalian species (8.7%)536 vulnerable mammalian species (9.3%)345 near threatened mammalian species (6.0%)3306 least concern mammalian species (57%)872 data deficient mammalian species (15%)
Mammalian species (IUCN, 2020-1)
  • 5850 extant species have been evaluated
  • 4978 of those are fully assessed[a]
  • 3651 are not threatened at present[b]
  • 1244 to 2116 are threatened[c]
  • 81 to 83 are extinct or extinct in the wild:
    • 81 extinct (EX) species[d]
    • 2 extinct in the wild (EW)
    • 0 possibly extinct [CR(PE)]
    • 0 possibly extinct in the wild [CR(PEW)]
  1. ^ excludes data deficient evaluations.
  2. ^ NT and LC.
  3. ^ Threatened comprises CR, EN and VU. Upper estimate additionally includes DD.
  4. ^ Chart omits extinct (EX) species
See also: List of recently extinct mammals

As the human population grew and colonization pushed deeper around the globe, and as the environmental footprint of the average human has grown, so has the pressure on ecosystems, and their inhabitants, including wild mammals.[25][8][6][26] Over the past several centuries, wild mammal extinctions tended to be concentrated among the small island species, whose endemic populations are constrained in size and range by their limited habitat,[27] and in Australia, where similar dynamics have played out. Since the European settlement 10% of Australia's 273 terrestrial mammals went extinct, (a loss of one to two species per decade). Currently, 21% of Australia's mammals are threatened, and unlike in most other continents, the main cause is predation by feral species, such as cats.[28]

In general, habitat degradation, through activities such as deforestation for land development, is currently the main anthropogenic cause of species extinctions. The main cause of habitat degradation worldwide is agriculture, with urban sprawl, logging, mining and some fishing practices close behind.[29] Disease can also be a factor: white nose syndrome in bats, for example, is causing a substantial decline in their populations and may even lead to the extinction of a species.[30] Another example is the Devil facial tumour disease, which has devastated populations of Tasmanian devils.[31][32] For wild mammals, overhunting can have a proportionally greater impact than on the other wild animals. Terrestrial mammals, such as the tiger and deer, are mainly hunted for their pelts and in some cases meat, and marine mammals can be hunted for their oil and leather. Specific targeting of one species can resonate through the wider ecosystem due to coextinction processes, especially if the targeted species is a keystone species. Sea otters, for example, were hunted in the maritime fur trade, and their drop in population led to the rise in sea urchins—their main food source—which decreased the population of kelp—the sea urchin's and Steller's sea cow's main food source—leading to the extinction of the Steller's sea cow.[33] The hunting of an already limited species can easily lead to its extinction, as with the bluebuck whose range was confined to 1,700 square miles (4,400 km2) and which was hunted into extinction soon after discovery by European settlers.[34]

Such pressures on wild species can be alleviated through wildlife conservation efforts, such as the establishment of protected areas. From 1996 to 2008, conservation efforts in 109 countries reduced the extinction risk of their wild mammals and birds by 29%, while conservation action throughout 2010s lowered the average extinction risk of birds, mammals and amphibians by at least 20%.[3] Some mammal-specific successes include the conservation of ungulates, 6% of which would have likely been extinct or extinct in the wild without them. Another example is the rebound of wolf populations across much of Europe and North America, including through measures such as Repopulation of wolves in Midwestern United States.[35][36] On sea, the decline of whaling had seen rebounds of a range of species, such as blue whales and humpback whales.[37][38] However, about a third of marine mammals are still considered to be at risk of extinction.[3]

There is some debate over the severity of declining trends in the global mammal and the broader vertebrate population: while the Living Planet Report of the World Wide Fund for Nature reported a 68% decline in the aggregate wild vertebrate populations since 1970,[39][40][4] a scientific reanalysis of its data in Nature found that 98.6% of vertebrate populations show no global trend over that period, with vertebrate declines disproportionately driven by 1% of the species, mostly clustered in the Indo-Pacific region and among several reptile and amphibian groups. Even so, that "extremely declining" cluster also includes many "larger animals", which are often mammals.[5] A separate analysis of 177 mammal species with the most-detailed data found that all of them have lost over 30% of their geographic range, and over 40% retain less than a fifth of their past range, which is impossible without a severe decline in population. Examples of notable mammals with declining populations include pangolins, cheetahs (around 7,000 individuals) and Sumatran and Borneo orangutans (no more than 5,000 combined), or even the 43% drop for the African lion population since 1993 due to declines in West Africa.[6] Globally, 27% of mammal species are threatened with extinction, while 233 species are critically endangered.[7] 74 mammal species are believed to be "on the brink", meaning that they retain fewer than 1000 members, with many of those possessing fewer than 250 members.[8]

Climate change

[edit]
In 2012, there was a large spike in reindeer mortality in Svalbard, after sudden winter warming caused an extreme rain-on-snow event.[41]

Current climate change influences species survival in a given area. Some of the first studies of the influence of climatic variables on wild mammals took place in the United States in 1960s. They analysed the impacts of severe winter weather events on the survival and reproduction of species such as Missouri cottontails and northern Montana Pronghorns.,[42][43] sometimes using radio transmitters.[44] As the warming progressed, such severe winter weather decreased,[45] and instead, warming of previously very cold places, such as the High Arctic can wreak havoc with the ecosystems. For instance, warming-driven increase in precipitation causes warm rain to fall onto the permafrost, which becomes unstable and can collapse from the mountainsides in avalanches. On multiple instances, this has blocked the winter food supply of reindeer populations, and led to their mass starvation in places like the Svalbard of Norway and the Yamal Peninsula of Russia: in the latter area, 61,000 reindeer died over the 2013–2014 winter as the result.[41][46]

In 2019, historical records from the past 300 years were used to quantify both anthropogenic and climate stressors and their role in te local extinction of 11 medium- and large-sized animals in China.[47] Both climate warming and cooling can cause range shifts and local extinction of animals, but quantitative evidence is rare due to the lack of long-term spatial-temporal data. In[47] Extreme temperature change was negatively associated with increased local extinction of mammals such as the gibbon, macaque, tiger, and water deer. Researchers concluded that while premodern cooling trend may have contributed to extinctions of tiger subspecies in the west and north of China, the recent global warming might contribute to the complete extinction of tigers in southern China.[47]

The impact of temperature on Brazilian free-tailed bat phenology in Brazil.[48]

In all, climate change is already believed to have had negative impacts on 47% of flightless land mammals.[3] While "flightless" excludes bats, there's also substantial evidence of them being negatively affected. For instance, Brazilian free-tailed bats are forced to emerge to feed earlier in the evening as their region becomes drier, even if it exposes them to more predators or competitor insectivores.[48] In other places, bats have been exposed to increased mortality due to heat stress. In Australia, flying foxes live comfortably below 42 °C (108 °F), but climate change caused a heatwave in 2014, which led to thousands of flying fox deaths. Mass mortality was highly visible, to the point fire trucks were deployed to spray the bats in an attempt to cool them down. A third of the entire species is believed to have been lost in that event.[49][50] 2019–2020 Australia bushfire season had killed over 1 billion animals and displaced around 2 billion more, including large numbers of threatened or endangered mammal species such as koalas.[51] And in the wake of 2019 Amazon rainforest wildfires, the World Wildlife Fund concluded that the jaguar is already "near threatened" and the loss of food supplies and habitat due to the fires make the situation more critical.[52] The fires affect water chemistry (such as decreasing the amount of dissolved oxygen in the water), temperature, and erosion rates, which in turn affects fish and mammals that depend on fish, such as the giant otter (Pteronura brasiliensis).[52]

Relative to the rate of climate change, evolutionary change is usually considered to be too slow to allow for genetic adaptation among species. However, microevolution is a genetic adaptation that deals with heritable shifts in allele frequencies in a population and is not characterized by the slow process of speciation, or the formation of a new distinct species.[53] However, larger terrestrial animals (including many mammals) usually cannot adapt with microevolution, as the rate of climate change is still too fast for this evolutionary process. Some, like the kangaroo, can still benefit from a very broad climatic tolerance.[54] Others would have to rely on phenotypic plasticity.[55] A plastic response to climate change includes expressing a different phenotype that may lead to differing morphology, phenology, or rate of activity .[56] Unlike genetic adaptation, phenotypic plasticity allows the animal itself to respond to climate change without a change in its genetic makeup. This mechanism that allows this process involves changes in DNA packaging in the nucleus that alters the chance of a particular gene being expressed.[57] Phenological changes are observed and taken as evidence that species are adjusting to environmental changes.

Although species may adapt to changing climates, either through genetic or phenotypic adaptation, all species have limits to their capacity for adaptive response to changing temperatures.[58] However, only around 4% of all mammals that are deemed climate sensitive by the IUC have been studied in regards to linking their demographic composition (i.e. survival, development, and reproduction) to climate change.[59] There is a large discrepancy between the locations of demographic studies and the species that are currently assessed as most vulnerable to climate change.[59] It is also incredibly difficult for studies to focus specifically and determine a straightforward relationship between limited tolerance to high temperatures and local extinction, as a diverse set of factors, such as food abundance, human activity, and mismatched timing, can all play a role in a species’ local or mass extinction.[60] To assess population viability under climate change, more coordinated actions need to be prioritized and taken to collect data on how different species’ demographic rates can persist and respond to climate change.[59]

Specific predictions of population decline or extinction

[edit]
This section is an excerpt from Extinction risk from climate change § Mammals.[edit]
The Bramble Cay melomys, thought to be the first mammal species to go extinct due to the impacts of climate change[61]

A 2023 paper concluded that under the high-warming SSP5–8.5 scenario, 50.29% of mammals would lose at least some habitat by 2100 as the conditions become more arid. Out of those, 9.50% would lose over half of their habitat due to an increase in dryness alone, while 3.21% could be expected to lose their entire habitat ad the result. These figures go down to 38.27%, 4.96% and 2.22% under the "intermediate" SSP2-4.5 scenario, and to 22.65%, 2.03% and 1.15% under the high-mitigation SSP1-2.6.[62]

In 2020, a study in Nature Climate Change estimated the effects of Arctic sea ice decline on polar bear populations (which rely on the sea ice to hunt seals) under two climate change scenarios. Under high greenhouse gas emissions, at most a few high-Arctic populations will remain by 2100: under more moderate scenario, the species will survive this century, but several major subpopulations will still be wiped out.[63][64]

In 2019, it was estimated that the current great ape range in Africa will decline massively under both the severe RCP8.5 scenario and the more moderate RCP4.5. The apes could potentially disperse to new habitats, but those would lie almost completely outside of their current protected areas, meaning that conservation planning needs to be "urgently" updated to account for this.[65]

A polar bear

A 2017 analysis found that the mountain goat populations of coastal Alaska would go extinct sometime between 2015 and 2085 in half of the considered scenarios of climate change.[66] Another analysis found that the Miombo Woodlands of South Africa are predicted to lose about 80% of their mammal species if the warming reached 4.5 °C (8.1 °F).[67]

In 2008, the white lemuroid possum was reported to be the first known mammal species to be driven extinct by climate change. However, these reports were based on a misunderstanding. One population of these possums in the mountain forests of North Queensland is severely threatened by climate change as the animals cannot survive extended temperatures over 30 °C (86 °F). However, another population 100 kilometres south remains in good health.[68] On the other hand, the Bramble Cay melomys, which lived on a Great Barrier Reef island, was reported as the first mammal to go extinct due to human-induced sea level rise,[61] with the Australian government officially confirming its extinction in 2019. Another Australian species, the greater stick-nest rat (Leporillus conditor) may be next. Similarly, the 2019–20 Australian bushfire season caused a near-complete extirpation of Kangaroo Island dunnarts, as only one individual may have survived out of the population of 500.[69] Those bushfires have also caused the loss of 8,000 koalas in New South Wales alone, further endangering the species.[70][71]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b Carrington, Damian (May 21, 2018). "Humans just 0.01% of all life but have destroyed 83% of wild mammals – study". The Guardian. Retrieved May 25, 2018.
  2. ^ a b c Bar-On, Yinon M.; Phillips, Rob; Milo, Ron (2018). "The biomass distribution on Earth". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 115 (25): 6506–6511. Bibcode:2018PNAS..115.6506B. doi:10.1073/pnas.1711842115. PMC 6016768. PMID 29784790.
  3. ^ a b c d e "Media Release: Nature's Dangerous Decline 'Unprecedented'; Species Extinction Rates 'Accelerating'". IPBES. May 5, 2019. Retrieved June 21, 2023.
  4. ^ a b Lewis, Sophie (September 9, 2020). "Animal populations worldwide have declined by almost 70% in just 50 years, new report says". CBS News. Retrieved October 22, 2020.
  5. ^ a b Leung, Brian; Hargreaves, Anna L.; Greenberg, Dan A.; McGill, Brian; Dornelas, Maria; Freeman, Robin (December 2020). "Clustered versus catastrophic global vertebrate declines" (PDF). Nature. 588 (7837): 267–271. Bibcode:2020Natur.588..267L. doi:10.1038/s41586-020-2920-6. hdl:10023/23213. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 33208939. S2CID 227065128.
  6. ^ a b c Ceballos, Gerardo; Ehrlich, Paul R.; Dirzo, Rodolfo (May 23, 2017). "Biological annihilation via the ongoing sixth mass extinction signaled by vertebrate population losses and declines". PNAS. 114 (30): E6089–E6096. Bibcode:2017PNAS..114E6089C. doi:10.1073/pnas.1704949114. PMC 5544311. PMID 28696295. Much less frequently mentioned are, however, the ultimate drivers of those immediate causes of biotic destruction, namely, human overpopulation and continued population growth, and overconsumption, especially by the rich. These drivers, all of which trace to the fiction that perpetual growth can occur on a finite planet, are themselves increasing rapidly
  7. ^ a b "IUCN Red List version 2022.2". The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN). Retrieved June 21, 2023.
  8. ^ a b c Ceballos, Gerardo; Ehrlich, Paul R.; Raven, Peter H. (June 1, 2020). "Vertebrates on the brink as indicators of biological annihilation and the sixth mass extinction". PNAS. 117 (24): 13596–13602. Bibcode:2020PNAS..11713596C. doi:10.1073/pnas.1922686117. PMC 7306750. PMID 32482862.
  9. ^ Carrington, Damian (May 23, 2019). "Humans causing shrinking of nature as larger animals die off". The Guardian. Retrieved May 23, 2019.
  10. ^ Smith, Felisa A.; Elliott Smith, Rosemary E.; Lyons, S. Kathleen; Payne, Jonathan L. (April 20, 2018). "Body size downgrading of mammals over the late Quaternary". Science. 360 (6386): 310–313. Bibcode:2018Sci...360..310S. doi:10.1126/science.aao5987. PMID 29674591.
  11. ^ Dembitzer, Jacob; Barkai, Ran; Ben-Dor, Miki; Meiri, Shai (2022). "Levantine overkill: 1.5 million years of hunting down the body size distribution". Quaternary Science Reviews. 276: 107316. Bibcode:2022QSRv..27607316D. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2021.107316. S2CID 245236379.
  12. ^ Zalasiewicz, Jan; Williams, Mark; Smith, Alan; Barry, Tiffany L.; Coe, Angela L.; Bown, Paul R.; Brenchley, Patrick; Cantrill, David; Gale, Andrew; Gibbard, Philip; Gregory, F. John; Hounslow, Mark W.; Kerr, Andrew C.; Pearson, Paul; Knox, Robert; Powell, John; Waters, Colin; Marshall, John; Oates, Michael; Rawson, Peter; Stone, Philip (2008). "Are we now living in the Anthropocene". GSA Today. 18 (2): 4. Bibcode:2008GSAT...18b...4Z. doi:10.1130/GSAT01802A.1.
  13. ^ Graham, R. W.; Mead, J. I. (1987). "Environmental fluctuations and evolution of mammalian faunas during the last deglaciation in North America". In Ruddiman, W. F.; Wright, J. H. E. (eds.). North America and Adjacent Oceans During the Last Deglaciation. The Geology of North America. Vol. K-3. Geological Society of America. ISBN 978-0-8137-5203-7.
  14. ^ Firestone RB, West A, Kennett JP, et al. (October 2007). "Evidence for an extraterrestrial impact 12,900 years ago that contributed to the megafaunal extinctions and the Younger Dryas cooling". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 104 (41): 16016–16021. Bibcode:2007PNAS..10416016F. doi:10.1073/pnas.0706977104. PMC 1994902. PMID 17901202.
  15. ^ Sandom, Christopher; Faurby, Søren; Sandel, Brody; Svenning, Jens-Christian (June 4, 2014). "Global late Quaternary megafauna extinctions linked to humans, not climate change". Proceedings of the Royal Society B. 281 (1787): 20133254. doi:10.1098/rspb.2013.3254. PMC 4071532. PMID 24898370.
  16. ^ Kolbert, Elizabeth (2014). The Sixth Extinction: An Unnatural History. New York City: Henry Holt and Company. ISBN 978-0805092998.
  17. ^ Martin, P. S. (1967). "Prehistoric overkill". In Martin, P. S.; Wright, H. E. (eds.). Pleistocene extinctions: The search for a cause. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-00755-8.
  18. ^ Lyons, S.K.; Smith, F.A.; Brown, J.H. (2004). "Of mice, mastodons and men: human-mediated extinctions on four continents" (PDF). Evolutionary Ecology Research. 6: 339–358. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 6, 2012. Retrieved October 18, 2012.
  19. ^ "Humans, not climate, have driven rapidly rising mammal extinction rate". phys.org. Retrieved October 9, 2020.
  20. ^ Andermann, Tobias; Faurby, Søren; Turvey, Samuel T.; Antonelli, Alexandre; Silvestro, Daniele (September 2020). "The past and future human impact on mammalian diversity". Science Advances. 6 (36). eabb2313. Bibcode:2020SciA....6.2313A. doi:10.1126/sciadv.abb2313. ISSN 2375-2548. PMC 7473673. PMID 32917612. Text and images are available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
  21. ^ Kelliher, F. M.; Clark, H. (March 15, 2010). "Methane emissions from bison—An historic herd estimate for the North American Great Plains". Agricultural and Forest Meteorology. 150 (3): 473–577. Bibcode:2010AgFM..150..473K. doi:10.1016/j.agrformet.2009.11.019.
  22. ^ Woinarskia, John C. Z.; Burbidge, Andrew A.; Harrison, Peter L. (2015). "Ongoing unraveling of a continental fauna: Decline and extinction of Australian mammals since European settlement" (PDF). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 112 (5): 4531–4540. Bibcode:2015PNAS..112.4531W. doi:10.1073/pnas.1417301112. PMC 4403217. PMID 25675493.
  23. ^ ROCHA, ROBERT C. Jr.; CLAPHAM, PHILLIP J.; IVASHCHENKO, YULIA V. (March 2015). "Emptying the Oceans: A Summary of Industrial Whaling Catches in the 20th Century". Marine Fisheries Review. Paper Has Annual Total for Each Species. Retrieved December 7, 2018.
  24. ^ Teyssèdre, A. (2004). "Biodiversity and Global Change". Towards a sixth mass extinction crisis?. Paris: ADPF. ISBN 978-2-914-935289.
  25. ^ Pimm SL, Jenkins CN, Abell R, Brooks TM, Gittleman JL, Joppa LN, Raven PH, Roberts CM, Sexton JO (May 30, 2014). "The biodiversity of species and their rates of extinction, distribution, and protection" (PDF). Science. 344 (6187): 1246752-1–1246752-10. doi:10.1126/science.1246752. PMID 24876501. S2CID 206552746. The overarching driver of species extinction is human population growth and increasing per capita consumption.
  26. ^ Stokstad, Erik (May 5, 2019). "Landmark analysis documents the alarming global decline of nature". Science. AAAS. Retrieved August 26, 2020.
  27. ^ van der Geer, Alexandra; Lyras, George; de Vos, John; Dermitzakis, Michael (2010). Evolution of Island Mammals: Adaptation and Extinction of Placental Mammals on Islands. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 225–227. ISBN 978-1-4051-9009-1.
  28. ^ Woinarskia, John C. Z.; Burbidge, Andrew A.; Harrison, Peter L. (2015). "Ongoing unraveling of a continental fauna: Decline and extinction of Australian mammals since European settlement" (PDF). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 112 (5): 4531–4540. Bibcode:2015PNAS..112.4531W. doi:10.1073/pnas.1417301112. PMC 4403217. PMID 25675493.
  29. ^ Primack, R. B. (2006). "Habitat destruction". Essentials of Conservation Biology (4th ed.). Sunderland, MA.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 177–188. ISBN 978-0-87893-720-2.
  30. ^ Langwig, K.E.; W.F. Frick; J.T. Bried; A.C. Hicks; T.H. Kunz; A.M. Kilpatrick (2012). "Sociality, density-dependence and microclimates determine the persistence of populations suffering from a novel fungal disease, white-nose syndrome". Ecology Letters. 15 (1): 1050–1057. Bibcode:2012EcolL..15.1050L. doi:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2012.01829.x. PMID 22747672.
  31. ^ Lachish S, McCallum H, Jones M (March 2009). "Demography, disease and the devil: life-history changes in a disease-affected population of Tasmanian devils (Sarcophilus harrisii)". The Journal of Animal Ecology. 78 (2): 427–36. Bibcode:2009JAnEc..78..427L. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2656.2008.01494.x. JSTOR 27696382. PMID 19021786.
  32. ^ McCallum H, Jones M, Hawkins C, Hamede R, Lachish S, Sinn DL, et al. (December 2009). "Transmission dynamics of Tasmanian devil facial tumor disease may lead to disease-induced extinction" (PDF). Ecology. 90 (12): 3379–92. Bibcode:2009Ecol...90.3379M. doi:10.1890/08-1763.1. hdl:10072/33909. PMID 20120807.
  33. ^ Estes, James A.; Burdin, Alexander; Doak, Daniel F. (2016). "Sea otters, kelp forests, and the extinction of Steller's sea cow". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 113 (4): 880–885. Bibcode:2016PNAS..113..880E. doi:10.1073/pnas.1502552112. PMC 4743786. PMID 26504217.
  34. ^ Husson, A. M.; Holthuis, L. B. (1969). "On the type of Antilope leucophaea preserved in the collection of the Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Historie Leiden". Zoologische Mededelingen. 44: 147–157.
  35. ^ "Wolf Recovery under the Endangered Species Act" (PDF). US Fish and Wildlife Service. February 2007. Archived (PDF) from the original on August 3, 2019. Retrieved September 1, 2019.
  36. ^ Mech, L. David; Boitani, Luigi, eds. (2003). Wolves: Behaviour, Ecology and Conservation. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-51696-7.
  37. ^ Michelson, Molly (September 8, 2014). "Blue whale population rebounding". California Academy of Sciences. Retrieved June 21, 2023.
  38. ^ Davidson, Helen (August 15, 2015). "Humpback Whales Make a Comeback in Australian Waters as Numbers Rebound". United Nations University. Retrieved June 21, 2023.
  39. ^ Greenfield, Patrick (September 9, 2020). "Humans exploiting and destroying nature on unprecedented scale – report". The Guardian. Retrieved September 10, 2020.
  40. ^ Briggs, Helen (September 10, 2020). "Wildlife in 'catastrophic decline' due to human destruction, scientists warn". BBC. Retrieved September 10, 2020.
  41. ^ a b Hansen, Brage (November 20, 2014). "Warmer and wetter winters: characteristics and implications of an extreme weather event in the High Arctic". Environmental Research Letters. 9 (11): 114021. Bibcode:2014ERL.....9k4021H. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/9/11/114021. hdl:11250/276669. S2CID 62816279.
  42. ^ Martinka, C. J. (1967). "Mortality of Northern Montana Pronghorns in a Severe Winter". The Journal of Wildlife Management. 31 (1): 159–164. doi:10.2307/3798371. ISSN 0022-541X. JSTOR 3798371.
  43. ^ Wight, Howard M.; Conaway, Clinton H. (1961). "Weather Influences on the Onset of Breeding in Missouri Cottontails". The Journal of Wildlife Management. 25 (1): 87–89. doi:10.2307/3796998. ISSN 0022-541X. JSTOR 3796998.
  44. ^ Stoddart, L. Charles (1985). "Severe Weather Related Mortality of Black-Tailed Jack Rabbits". The Journal of Wildlife Management. 49 (3): 696–698. doi:10.2307/3801697. ISSN 0022-541X. JSTOR 3801697.
  45. ^ van Oldenborgh, Geert Jan; Mitchell-Larson, Eli; Vecchi, Gabriel A.; de Vries, Hylke; Vautar, Robert; Otto, Friederike (November 22, 2019). "Cold waves are getting milder in the northern midlatitudes". Environmental Research Letters. 14 (11): 114004. Bibcode:2019ERL....14k4004V. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/ab4867. S2CID 204420462.
  46. ^ Kater, Ilona (August 6, 2019). "Mass starvation of reindeer linked to climate change and habitat loss". The Conversation. Retrieved June 21, 2023.
  47. ^ a b c Wan, Xinru; Jiang, Guangshun; Yan, Chuan; He, Fangliang; Wen, Rongsheng; Gu, Jiayin; Li, Xinhai; Ma, Jianzhang; Stenseth, Nils Chr; Zhang, Zhibin (September 17, 2019). "Historical records reveal the distinctive associations of human disturbance and extreme climate change with local extinction of mammals". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 116 (38): 19001–19008. Bibcode:2019PNAS..11619001W. doi:10.1073/pnas.1818019116. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 6754601. PMID 31481618.
  48. ^ a b Frick, W. F.; Stepanian, P. M.; Kelly, J. F.; Howard, K. W.; Kuster, C. M.; Kunz, T. H.; Chilson, P. B. (2012). "Climate and Weather Impact Timing of Emergence of Bats". PLOS ONE. 7 (8): e42737. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...742737F. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0042737. PMC 3411708. PMID 22876331.
  49. ^ Ratnayake, H. U.; Kearney, M. R.; Govekar, P.; Karoly, D.; Welbergen, J. A. (2019). "Forecasting wildlife die-offs from extreme heat events". Animal Conservation. 22 (4): 386–395. Bibcode:2019AnCon..22..386R. doi:10.1111/acv.12476. hdl:11343/285331. ISSN 1469-1795. S2CID 91262470.
  50. ^ Mao, Frances (January 15, 2019). "How one heatwave killed 'a third' of a bat species in Australia". BBC News. Retrieved June 21, 2023.
  51. ^ van Oldenborgh, Geert Jan; Krikken, Folmer; Lewis, Sophie; Leach, Nicholas J.; Lehner, Flavio; Saunders, Kate R.; van Weele, Michiel; Haustein, Karsten; Li, Sihan; Wallom, David; Sparrow, Sarah (March 11, 2021). "Attribution of the Australian bushfire risk to anthropogenic climate change". Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences. 21 (3): 941–960. Bibcode:2021NHESS..21..941V. doi:10.5194/nhess-21-941-2021. hdl:20.500.11850/475524. ISSN 1561-8633. S2CID 233738164.
  52. ^ a b Hira Humayun (August 28, 2019). "What the Amazon's fires mean for its animals". CNN World. Retrieved February 8, 2020.
  53. ^ Bradshaw, William E.; Holzapfel, Christina M. (2006). "Evolutionary Response to Rapid Climate Change". Science. 312 (5779): 1477–1478. doi:10.1126/science.1127000. PMID 16763134. S2CID 126606246.
  54. ^ "How Do Kangaroos Survive The Aussie Outback?". www.nationalgeographic.com.au. CHOOK DIGITAL AGENCY. Archived from the original on July 6, 2016. Retrieved March 21, 2019.
  55. ^ Hetem, Robyn S.; Fuller, Andrea; Maloney, Shane K.; Mitchell, Duncan (2014). "Responses of large mammals to climate change". Temperature. 1 (2): 115–127. doi:10.4161/temp.29651. PMC 4977165. PMID 27583293.
  56. ^ Bonamour, S.; Chevin, L.-M.; Charmantier, A.; Teplitsky, C. (2019). "Phenotypic plasticity in response to climate change: the importance of cue variation". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 274 (1768): 20180178. doi:10.1098/rstb.2018.0178. PMC 6365871. PMID 30966957. S2CID 91543555.
  57. ^ Lande, R. (2009). "Adaptation to an extraordinary environment by evolution of phenotypic plasticity and genetic assimilation". Journal of Evolutionary Biology. 22 (7). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (European Society for Evolutionary Biology): 1435–1446. doi:10.1111/j.1420-9101.2009.01754.x. ISSN 1010-061X. PMID 19467134. S2CID 39358852.Garland, Theodore; Kelly, Scott A. (2006). "Phenotypic plasticity and experimental evolution". Journal of Experimental Biology. 209 (12): 2344–2361. doi:10.1242/jeb.02244. PMID 16731811. S2CID 10350443.
  58. ^ Pecl, Gretta T.; et al. (2017). "Biodiversity redistribution under climate change: Impacts on ecosystems and human well-being". Science. 355 (6332). doi:10.1126/science.aai9214. hdl:10019.1/120851. PMID 28360268. S2CID 206653576.
  59. ^ a b c Paniw, Maria; James, Tamora D.; Archer, C. Ruth; Römer, Gesa; Levin, Sam; Compagnoni, Aldo; Che-Castaldo, Judy; Bennett, Joanne M.; Mooney, Andrew; Childs, Dylan Z.; Ozgul, Arpat; Jones, Owen R.; Burns, Jean H.; Beckerman, Andrew P.; Patwary, Abir; Sanchez-Gassen, Nora; Knight, Tiffany M.; Salguero-Gómez, Roberto (April 6, 2021). "The myriad of complex demographic responses of terrestrial mammals to climate change and gaps of knowledge: A global analysis" (PDF). Journal of Animal Ecology. 90 (6): 1398–1407. Bibcode:2021JAnEc..90.1398P. doi:10.1111/1365-2656.13467. PMID 33825186. S2CID 233173861.
  60. ^ Cahill, Abigail E.; Aiello-Lammens, Matthew E.; Fisher-Reid, M. Caitlin; Hua, Xia; Karanewsky, Caitlin J.; Yeong Ryu, Hae; Sbeglia, Gena C.; Spagnolo, Fabrizio; Waldron, John B.; Warsi, Omar; Wiens, John J. (January 7, 2013). "How does climate change cause extinction?". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 280 (1750): 20121890. doi:10.1098/rspb.2012.1890. PMC 3574421. PMID 23075836.
  61. ^ a b Smith, Lauren (June 15, 2016). "Extinct: Bramble Cay melomys". Australian Geographic. Retrieved June 17, 2016.
  62. ^ Liu, Xiaoping; Guo, Renyun; Xu, Xiaocong; Shi, Qian; Li, Xia; Yu, Haipeng; Ren, Yu; Huang, Jianping (April 3, 2023). "Future Increase in Aridity Drives Abrupt Biodiversity Loss Among Terrestrial Vertebrate Species". Earth's Future. 11 (4): e2022EF003162. Bibcode:2023EaFut..1103162L. doi:10.1029/2022EF003162. S2CID 257934225.
  63. ^ Molnár, Péter K.; Bitz, Cecilia M.; Holland, Marika M.; Kay, Jennifer E.; Penk, Stephanie R.; Amstrup, Steven C. (July 20, 2020). "Fasting season length sets temporal limits for global polar bear persistence". Nature Climate Change. 10 (1): 732–738. Bibcode:2022NatSR..1219593K. doi:10.1038/s41598-022-23369-5. PMC 9684554. PMID 36418340.
  64. ^ Briggs, H (July 20, 2020). "Climate change: Polar bears could be lost by 2100". BBC. Retrieved November 6, 2021.
  65. ^ Carvalho, Joana S.; Graham, Bruce; Bocksberger, Gaёlle; Maisels, Fiona; Williamson, Elizabeth A.; Wich, Serge; Sop, Tenekwetche; Amarasekaran, Bala; Barca, Benjamin; Barrie, Abdulai; Bergl, Richard A.; Boesch, Christophe; Boesch, Hedwige; Brncic, Terry M.; Buys, Bartelijntje; Chancellor, Rebecca; Danquah, Emmanuel; Doumbé, Osiris A.; Le-Duc, Stephane Y.; Galat-Luong, Anh; Ganas, Jessica; Gatti, Sylvain; Ghiurghi, Andrea; Goedmakers, Annemarie; Granier, Nicolas; Hakizimana, Dismas; Haurez, Barbara; Head, Josephine; Herbinger, Ilka; Hillers, Annika; Jones, Sorrel; Junker, Jessica; Maputla, Nakedi; Manasseh, Eno-Nku; McCarthy, Maureen S.; Molokwu-Odozi, Mary; Morgan, Bethan J.; Nakashima, Yoshihiro; N’Goran, Paul K.; Nixon, Stuart; Nkembi, Louis; Normand, Emmanuelle; Nzooh, Laurent D.Z.; Olson, Sarah H.; Payne, Leon; Petre, Charles-Albert; Piel, Alex K.; Pintea, Lilian; Plumptre, Andrew J.; Rundus, Aaron; Serckx, Adeline; Stewart, Fiona A.; Sunderland-Groves, Jacqueline; Tagg, Nikki; Todd, Angelique; Vosper, Ashley; Wenceslau, José F.C.; Wessling, Erin G.; Willie, Jacob; Kühl, Hjalmar S. (June 6, 2021). "Predicting range shifts of African apes under global change scenarios". Diversity and Distributions. 27 (9): 1663–1679. Bibcode:2021DivDi..27.1663C. doi:10.1111/ddi.13358. S2CID 220253266.
  66. ^ White, Kevin S.; Gregovich, David P.; Levi, Taal (October 3, 2017). "Projecting the future of an alpine ungulate under climate change scenarios". Global Change Biology. 24 (3): 1136–1149. doi:10.1111/gcb.13919. PMID 28973826. S2CID 3374336.
  67. ^ Warren, R.; Price, J.; VanDerWal, J.; Cornelius, S.; Sohl, H. (March 14, 2018). "The implications of the United Nations Paris Agreement on climate change for globally significant biodiversity areas". Climatic Change. 147 (3–4): 395–409. Bibcode:2018ClCh..147..395W. doi:10.1007/s10584-018-2158-6. S2CID 158490978.
  68. ^ Nowak R (March 31, 2009). "Rumours of possum's death were greatly exaggerated". New Scientist.
  69. ^ Ed Yong (January 14, 2020). "The Bleak Future of Australian Wildlife". The Atlantic. Retrieved February 8, 2020.
  70. ^ Danush Parvaneh; Christophe Haubursin; Melissa Hirsch (January 14, 2020). "Are Australia's koalas going extinct? We asked an ecologist". Vox. Retrieved February 8, 2020.
  71. ^ Natasha Daly (November 25, 2019). "No, koalas aren't 'functionally extinct'—yet". National Geographic. Archived from the original on November 26, 2019. Retrieved February 8, 2020.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Decline_in_wild_mammal_populations&oldid=1250743207"