Irish syntax

Irish syntax is rather different from that of most Indo-European languages, especially because of its VSO word order.

Normal word order

The normal word order in an Irish sentence is:

Preverbal particle
Verb
Subject
Direct object or predicate adjective
Indirect object
Location descriptor
Manner descriptor
Time descriptor

Only the verb and subject are obligatory; all other parts are optional (unless the primary or finite verb is transitive, in which case a direct object is required). In synthetic verb forms, the verb and subject are united in a single word, so that even one-word sentences are possible, e.g. [Tuigim] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "I understand."

An example sentence:

Labhraíonn	Mícheál	Gaeilge	le Cáit	go minic.
speaks	Mícheál	Irish	with Cáit	often
Verb	Subject	Dir.obj.	Ind.obj.	Time
"Mícheál speaks Irish with Cáit often."

Questions and answers

Irish has no words for "yes" and "no". The answer to a question contains a repetition (the same as in Latin) of the verb, either with or without a negative particle. For analytic forms, only the verb is given and the subject is not repeated. If a verb has different dependent and independent forms, the dependent form follows the interrogative or negative particle. The independent form is used where there is no particle.

An éisteann Seán lena mháthair riamh? "Does Seán ever listen to his mother?"

Éisteann. (not: *Éisteann sé) "Yes, he does." (literally, "Listens.")
Ní éisteann. (not: *Ní éisteann sé) "No, he doesn't." (literally, "Does not listen.")

Nach bhfuil tú ag éisteacht liom? "Aren't you listening to me?"

Táim. "Yes, I am."
Nílim. "No, I'm not."

Commands

In a command the imperative mood is used, and no subject is given.

Tabhair	dúinn	dhá	ghloine	fuisce	le do thoil.
give	to us	two	glasses	whiskey-GEN	please
"Please give us two glasses of whiskey!"

To express a negative command, the particle [ná] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) is used. This particle, which can be roughly translated "don't", causes neither eclipsis nor lenition, and attaches h to a following vowel.

Ná	cailligí	an	t-airgead.
don't	lose	the	money
"Don't lose the money!"

Ná	habair	leo	é.
don't	tell	to them	it
"Don't tell it to them!"

Ná	téimis	abhaile.
don't	let's go	home
"Let's not go home!"

Syntax of the verbal noun

A progressive aspect can be formed by connecting the verbal noun to the existential verb with the progressive particle [ag] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help).

Tá	Mícheál	ag	labhairt	Gaeilge	le	Cáit	anois.
is	Mícheál	at	speaking	Irish	with	Cáit	now
"Mícheál is speaking Irish with Cáit now."

The object of a verbal noun is in the genitive, if it is definite.

Tá	Séamas	ag	léamh	an nuachtáin.
is	Séamas	at	reading	the newspaper-GEN
"Séamas is reading the newspaper."

If a nonfinite clause forms the complement of the verb, the verbal noun stands alone (without a preposition) in the clause.

D'éirigh	liom	breith	ar	an	liathróid.
was successful	with me	catching	on	the	ball
"I succeeded in catching the ball."

The direct object of a verbal noun complement precedes the verbal noun; the leniting particle [a] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "to" is placed between them. Other complements follow.

Tá brath agam	an scian	a	chur	go cúramach	ar an mbord.
I have intention	the knife	to	put	carefully	on the table
"I intend to place the knife carefully on the table."

Object pronouns

Generally, an object pronoun or a conjugated preposition stands at the end of a sentence in Irish. Compare this sentence:

D'inis	sé	an scéal	do Bhríd	inné.
told	he	the story	to Bríd	yesterday
"He told the story to Bríd yesterday."

with the two following sentences:

D'inis	sé	do Bhríd	inné	é.
told	he	to Bríd	yesterday	it
"He told it to Bríd yesterday."

D'inis	sé	an scéal	inné	di
told	he	the story	yesterday	to-her
"He told her the story yesterday."

Passive

Irish commonly uses the impersonal form (also called the autonomous form) instead of the passive voice.

Buaileadh	an madra.
one beat-PRET	the dog
"Someone beat the dog"/"The dog was beaten."

In the perfect, the passive voice is formed by using the passive participle with the existential verb.

Tá	an fhuinneog	briste	[(ag mo dheartháir.)] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
is	the window	broken	(by my brother)
"The window has been broken (by my brother)."

Stative verbs

Some verbs describing the state or condition of a person form a progressive present with the existential verb plus 'in (my, your, his etc.)' plus the verbal noun.

Tá	mé	i	mo	chodladh.
am	I	in	my	sleep
"I'm asleep."

An	bhfuil	tú	i	do	chónaí	sa	Ghearmáin?
Q	are	you	in	your	living	in the	Germany
"Do you live in Germany?"

Forms meaning "to be"

Irish, like Spanish and other languages, has two forms that can express the English verb "to be". The two forms perform different grammatical functions.

Existential verb [bí] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)

The existential verb is [bí] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help). It is an irregular verb; see Irish verbs for its conjugation.

Existence, condition or location

This verb expresses the absolute existence of something, its condition, or its location. When accompanied by the adverb [ann] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "there", it means "exist" or "there is/are". Otherwise, the verb is complemented by an adjective, an adverb or a prepositional phrase.

Tá	Dia	ann.
is	God	there
"God exists; There is a God."

Tá	an	bosca	folamh.
is	the	box	empty
"The box is empty."

Tá	na	húlla	ar	an	mbord.
are	the	apples	on	the	table
"The apples are on the table."

Definitions

A noun phrase alone cannot form the predicate of the existential verb. Instead, the noun complement is preceded by a form meaning "in my, in your, in his", etc.

Tá	Seán	ina	dhochtúir.
is	Seán	in his	doctor
"Seán is a doctor."

The copula [is] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)

The Irish copula is not a verb but a particle, used to express a definition or identification. It may be complemented by a noun, a pronoun, an adjective, or a topicalized phrase. Because it is not a verb, it does not inflect for person or number, and pronouns appear in the disjunctive form.

The copula, which has the realis form [is] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), is used for identification and definition:

Definition: X is a Y. Here, the word order is "Is-Y-(pronoun)-X". X is a definite noun or a pronoun.

Is	fear	é.
COP	man	him
"It/he is a man."

Is	Sasanaigh	iad.
COP	English (PLUR)	them
"They are English."

Identification: X is the Y. Here the word order is "Is-pronoun-X-Y", or "Is-pronoun-Y-X". There must always be a pronoun between a definite noun and the copula. It would be wrong to say *Is Seán an múinteoir, which would mean "The teacher is a Seán".

Is	é	Seán	an	múinteoir.
COP	him	Seán	the	teacher
"Seán is the teacher."

To identify a first or second person pronoun with a definite noun, it is usual to use the longer form of the personal pronoun, which comes immediately after the copula:

[Is mise an múinteoir.] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "I am the teacher."
[Is tusa an scoláire.] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "You are the student."
[Is sinne na múinteoirí.] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "We are the teachers."
[Is sibhse na scoláirí.] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "You are the students."

The long form of the personal pronoun is very emphatic and stressed and often ejects the copula entirely. Thus, in the previous four examples, it is possible to leave out the copula, which will then be understood:

[Mise an múinteoir.] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
[Tusa an scoláire.] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
[Sinne na múinteoirí.] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
[Sibhse na scoláirí.] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)

If a third-person pronoun with a definite noun is identified, the same construction may be used:

[(Is) eisean an múinteoir.] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "He is the teacher."
[(Is) ise an scoláire.] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "She is the student."
[(Is) iadsan na saighdiúirí.] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "They are the soldiers".

However, in the third person, that is perceived to be much more emphatic than in the first and second persons. The usual way to say "He is the teacher" is

[Is é an múinteoir é.] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)

in which the definite noun is flanked by two personal pronouns agreeing with it in gender and number.

When saying "this is", or "that is", [seo] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) and [sin] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) are used, in which case [is] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) is usually dropped:

[Seo í mo mháthair.] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "This is my mother."
[Sin é an muinteoir.] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "That's the teacher."

The copula can also be dropped before pronouns:

[Mise Éire.] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "I am Ireland." (the name of a renowned poem by Irish Republican revolutionary Patrick Pearse)

One can also add "that is in him/her/it", especially when an adjective is used if one wants to emphasise the quality:

Is	fear	láidir	atá	ann.
COP	man	strong	that is	in him
"He's a strong man."

Is	cailín	álainn	atá	inti.
COP	girl	beautiful	that is	in her
"She's a beautiful girl."

That sometimes appears in Hiberno-English, translated literally as "that is in it" or as "so it is".

The present tense of the copula can be used for the future:

Is múinteoir é. "He will be a teacher."

The past tense of the copula can be used for the conditional:

Ba mhúinteoir í. "She would be a teacher."

The forms [is] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) and [ba] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) are not used after preverbal particles.

An múinteoir thú? "Are you a teacher?"
Níor mhúinteoirí sinn. "We were not teachers."

If the predicate is definite, the copula is followed by a disjunctive personal pronoun, which may be repeated at the end of the sentence.

Is í Siobhán an múinteoir. "Siobhán is the teacher."
Is iad na daoine sin na múinteoirí. "Those people are the teachers."
[Is é an múinteoir é.] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "He is the teacher."

If the predicate is indefinite, it follows the copula directly, with the disjunctive pronoun and subject coming at the end.

Is dalta mé. "I am a student."
Is múinteoir í Cáit. "Cáit is a teacher."

The predicate of the copula can also be an adjective, and the subject is then a definite noun.

Is	breá	an lá	é.
COP	nice	the day	it
"It's a nice day."

Topicalization

Topicalization in Irish is formed by clefting: by fronting the topicalized element as the predicate of the copula, while the rest of the sentence becomes a relative clause. Compare [Dúirt mise é] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "I said it" with [Is mise a dúirt é] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "I said it."

Other uses for the copula

There are other set idiomatic phrases using the copula, as seen in the following examples. Here the predicate consists mostly of either a prepositional phrase or an adjective.

Is maith liom "I like" (lit. "is good with me")
Ba mhaith liom "I would like" (lit. "would be good with me")
Is fearr liom "I prefer" (lit. "is better with me")
Is féidir liom "I can" (lit. "is possible with me")
Ba cheart "one should" (lit. "would be right")
Níor cheart "one shouldn't" (lit. "would not be right")
Is fuath liom "I hate" (lit. "is hatred with me")
Is cuma liom "I don't care" (lit. "is indifferent with me")
Is mian liom "I wish/would like" (lit. "is desire with me")
Is cuimhin liom "I remember" (lit. "is memory with me")

There are also the following constructions:

Is	deacair	an abairt seo	a thuiscint.
COP	difficult	this sentence	to understand
"This sentence is hard to understand."

Is	le Cáit	an gluaisteán.
COP	with Cáit	the car
"The car belongs to Cáit."

Is	as Baile Átha Cliath	Máire.
COP	from Dublin	Máire
"Máire is from Dublin."

Answering questions with copula

Since the copula cannot stand alone, the answer must contain either a part of the predicate or a pronoun, both of which follow the copula.

An é Seán an múinteoir? "Is Seán the teacher?"
- Is é. "Yes, he is."
- Ní hé. "No, he isn't."
An múinteoir é Seán? "Is Seán a teacher?"
- Is ea. "Yes, he is."
- Ní hea. "No, he isn't."

Omission of [is] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)

In all dialects, the copula [is] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) may be omitted if the predicate is a noun. ([Ba] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) cannot be deleted.) If [is] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) is omitted, the following [é, í, iad] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) preceding the noun is omitted as well.

[(Is) mise an múinteoir.] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "I am the teacher."
[(Is é) Seán an múinteoir.] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "Seán is the teacher."
[(Is) dalta mé.] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "I am a student."

Comparison of the existential verb and the copula

Both the existential verb and the copula may take a nominal predicate, but the two constructions have slightly different meanings: [Is dochtúir é Seán] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) sounds more permanent: iit represents something absolute about Seán; it is a permanent characteristic of Seán that he is a doctor. That is known as an individual-level predicate. In the sentence [Tá Seán ina dhochtúir] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), one says rather that Seán performs the job of a doctor, he is a doctor at the moment, or he has become a doctor. That is known as a stage-level predicate.

Subordination

Most complementizers (subordinating conjunctions) in Irish cause eclipsis and require the dependent form of irregular verbs. The word order in an Irish subordinate clause is the same as in a main clause. The types of subordination discussed here are: complementation, relative clauses, and wh-questions (which are formed as a kind of relative clause in Irish).

Complementation

Syntactic complementation

The subordinate clause is a part of the main clause in a purely syntactic complementation. In Irish it is introduced by [go] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "that" in the positive and [nach] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "that... not" in the negative.

Deir	sé	go	bhfuil	deifir	air.
says	he	that	is	hurry	upon-him
"He says that he's in a hurry."

Chruthaigh	sé	nach	raibh	taibhse	ann.
proved	he	that not	was	ghost	there
"He proved that there was no ghost."

Other examples of complex sentences using complementizers:

Bhí faitíos roimhe mar go raibh sé taghdach. "People were afraid of him because he was quick-tempered."
Ní chreidim é cé go bhfeicim é. "I don't believe it although I see it."
Scríobh sí síos é ar nós nach ndéanfadh sí dearmad air. "She wrote it down so that she wouldn't forget it."
Fan nó go dtiocfaidh sé. "Wait until he comes."

Conditional complementation

A conditional clause gives the condition under which something will happen. In Irish there are two kinds of conditional clauses, depending on the plausibility of the condition. The particle [má] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) introduces a conditional clause that is plausible, also called a realis condition. [Má] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) causes lenition and takes the independent form of irregular verbs. Its negated form is [mura] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) and causes eclipsis. Preceding the preterite it is [murar] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) and causes lenition.

If the condition of the clause is hypothetical, also called an irrealis condition or counterfactual conditional, the word [dá] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) is used, which causes eclipsis and takes the dependent form of irregular verbs. The negated equivalent is either [mura] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) or [murach go] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), meaning roughly "if it were not the case that...". The verb in both clauses is in the conditional.

Má chreideann sé an scéal sin, tá sé saonta go maith. "If he believes that story, he is pretty gullible." (realis)
Murar chaill sé é, ghoid sé é. "If he didn't lose it, then he stole it." (realis)
Dá bhfágfainn agat é ní dhéanfá é. "If I left it to you, you wouldn't do it." (irrealis)

Other examples of conditionals are:

Éireoidh leis an bhfiontar i gcleithiúnas go mbeidh cách páirteach ann. "The venture will succeed provided that all take part in it."
Tig leat é a bhriseadh ar chuntar go n-íocfaidh tú as. "You may break it provided that you pay for it."

Relative clauses

Direct relative

There are two kinds of relative clauses in Irish: direct and indirect. Direct relative clauses begin with the leniting relativizer [a] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) and the independent form of an irregular verb is used. The direct relative is used when the relative pronoun is the subject or direct object of its clause.

D'imigh na daoine a bhí míshásta thar sáile. "The people who were unhappy went overseas."
Sin í an obair a rinne mé. "That's the work that I did."

The direct relative is also used in topicalizations, e.g.:

Is é Jimmy a chuaigh go Méiriceá. "It's Jimmy who went to America."

The direct relative is also used after the word [uair] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "time":

an chéad uair a bhí mé ann "the first time that I was there"

Indirect relative

Indirect relative clauses begin with the eclipsing relativizer [a] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) (in the preterite with leniting [ar] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)); the dependent form of an irregular verb is used. The indirect relative is used to signify a genitive or the object of a preposition. In these cases, there is a resumptive pronoun in the relative clause.

[an fear 'a raibh a dheirfiúr san ospidéal] Error: {{Lang}}: text has malformed markup (help) "the man whose sister was in the hospital" (lit. "the man that his sister was in the hospital")
an fear ar thug a iníon céad punt dó "the man whose daughter gave him a hundred pounds" or "the man to whom his daughter gave a hundred pounds" (lit. "the man that his daughter gave him a hundred pounds")
an seomra ar chodail mé ann "the room that I slept in" (lit. "the room that I slept in it")

The negative form of a relative clause, direct or indirect, is formed with the eclipsing relativizer [nach] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), or, before the preterite, with the leniting relativizer [nár] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help).

Sin rud nach dtuigim. "That's something I don't understand." (direct)
bean nach bhfuil a mac ag obair "a woman whose son isn't working" (indirect; lit. "a woman that her son isn't working")

Sometimes a direct relative clause can be ambiguous in meaning, leaving unclear if the relative is accusative or nominative:

an sagart a phóg an bhean "the priest who kissed the woman" or "the priest whom the woman kissed"

If the accusative reading is intended, one could use an indirect relative with a resumptive pronoun:

an sagart ar phóg an bhean é "the priest whom the woman kissed" (lit. "the priest that the woman kissed him")

Wh-questions

A wh-question begins with a word such as "who, what, how, when, where, why" etc. In Irish, such questions are constructed as relative clauses, in that they can be constructed as either direct or indirect.

Direct relative wh-questions

Questions with "who, what, how many, which, when" are constructed as direct relative clauses.

[Cathain/Cá huair a tharla sé?] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "When did it happen?"
[Cé a rinne é?] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "Who did it?"
[Céard a fuair tú?] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "What did you get?"
[Cé mhéad míle a shiúil tú?] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "How many miles did you walk?"
[Cé acu is daoire, feoil nó iasc?] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "Which is more expensive, meat or fish?"

Indirect relative wh-questions

Questions with prepositions (i.e. "on what?, with whom?") and questions with "why?" and "where?" are constructed as indirect relative clauses.

[Cé aige a bhfuil an t-airgead?] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "Who has the money?" (lit. "who at him is the money")
[Cá leis ar thóg tú an gluaisteán?] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "What did you lift the car with?" (lit. "what with it did you lift the car")
[Cad chuige ar bhuail tú é?] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "Why did you hit him?"
[Cén áit a bhfaca tú an bhean?] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "Where did you see the woman?"

Clauses introduced by "how"

There are two words for "how" in Irish: the word [conas] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) takes the direct relative clause, the phrase [cén chaoi] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) takes the indirect.

[Conas a tharla sé?] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "How did it happen?"
[Cén chaoi a mbaineann sin leat?] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "How does that concern you?/What business is that of yours?"

Complementary subordinate clauses in the form of a relative clause

Some complements in Irish take the form of a relative, in that they end in the relative particle [a] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help); both direct and indirect relative are found.

Direct

[Nuair a bhí mé óg, bhí mé i mo chónaí i nDún na nGall.] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "When I was young, I lived in Donegal."
[Glaofaidh sí chomh luath agus a thiocfaidh sí abhaile.] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "She will call as soon as she gets home."
[Bhí sé ag caoineadh an t-achar a bhí sé ag caint liom.] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "He was crying while he was talking to me."
[Seinneadh port ansin, mar a rinneadh go minic.] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "Then a melody was played, as one often did ."
[Bhog sé a cheann ar nós mar a bheadh sé ag seinm.] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "He moved his head as if he were playing music."
[Tig leat é a choinneáil fad is a thugann tú aire dó.] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "You may hold it as long as you are careful with it."

Indirect

[Lorg iad mar ar chuir tú iad.] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "Look for them where you put them."
[Fan san áit a bhfuil tú.] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "Stay where you are!"
[An t-am ar tháinig sé, bhíodar díolta ar fad.] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "By the time he came, they were all sold out."
[Inseoidh mé sin dó ach a bhfeicfidh mé é.] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "I will tell him that as soon as I see him."
[D'fhág sí é sa gcaoi a raibh sé.] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) "She left it as it was."

External links

Gramadach na Gaeilge - by Lars Bräsicke