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Tortilla chips are a popular snack food in North America. The chips can be paired with condiments such as salsa and guacamole, or can be made into nachos.

Tortilla chips with salsa and guacamole

Tortillas originated in Mexico as a bread staple made from corn pulp, otherwise known as masa. The name “tortilla”, however, emerged from the Spaniards’ description of the flour cake: torta, the Spanish word for “cake.”[1] The chips were first invented by Jose Martinez in San Antonio, Texas, when his innovation of mass-produced masa produced an abundance of corn pulp.[2] Thus, he shaped the masa and baked them into chips.[2] However, it was Rebecca Webb Carranza who is credited to be “one of the pioneers of the commercial tortilla chip” by introducing the chips into modern food culture.[3][4][2] Her discovery in 1950 was led by aversion towards the food waste produced by misshapen tortillas coming out from the El Zarape Tortilla Factory tortilla-making machines where she worked. Carranza cut the misshapen tortillas and deep fried them, quickly gaining popularity with her relatives and deli, where she sold the chips for a dime a bag. 10 years later, the popularity of the Tort Chips revolutionized El Zarape’s business as well as the commercialization of tortilla chips today.[3][4]

The chips have gained increasing popularity in North America, so much so that the top 10 brands of tortilla chips, such as Doritos and Tostitos, have earned a combined revenue of $3,243.7 billion just in 2015.[5] Even February 24th has even been marked as National Tortilla Chip Day![6]

Ingredients

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Ingredients list for the brand Old Dutch Restaurante Red and White tortilla chips

Tortilla chips are defined as snacks made from milled alkaline treated (nixtamalized) corn or alkaline-treated corn flours that are formatted, cooked, and partially dried and fried and baked.[7] Traditionally made tortilla chips are made from yellow or white corn. This corn is ground into flour, called masa. Masa is Spanish for dough, however, in Mexico it more often refers to dough made from corn.[8] Masa is produced by first cooking and steeping raw, dried, whole kernel corn then soaking it in a food-grade slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) and water solution to break down the hulls; and finally the kernels are then ground into flour. The slaked lime assists in the digression of complex starches and facilitates release of the outer husk of the whole kernel corn.[7] The alkalinity of the lime helps dissolve the corn cell walls as well as helps to soften the corn. Additionally, it helps the corn flour to bind together, to produce masa as well as provide a source of dietary calcium. This is called the nixtamalization process. Furthermore, tortilla chips can contain whole-wheat flour, and/or blue cornmeal in addition to corn.  White corn is the most commonly used corn for making tortilla chips.[7] Blue Corn (blue corn being a special variety of maize, not traditional corn) tortillas have less starch and 20 percent more protein than white corn tortillas.[9] Frying oils, salts, and various seasonings are added to enhance the product flavouring. Typically original flavoured tortilla chips include very few ingredients, such as corn, vegetable oil and salt. However, many different flavour varieties exist. These flavours include but are not limited to: taco, hint of lime, Fajita, Sriracha, Mustard Onion, Roasted Garlic and Black Bean, Nacho Cheese, and Sweet Spicy Chilli.

Masa

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One of the most important industrial advancements has been the production of dry masa flour, a shelf-stable product. Once the corn has been soaked and ground in a flour, masa is produced. This dry flour has become popular because it meets standards for certain applications, reduces requirements for energy, labor, floor space, processing time, and equipment, and is convenient and easy to use.[10] When compared with fresh masa flour, however, foods made from dry masa flour tend to be less flavorful and the cost per unit is higher. Smaller producers of tortilla chips usually use dry masa flour, while large companies prefer to use fresh masa flour that is produced on-site.[10]

Whole Wheat Varieties

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Although white corn tortilla chips are commercially successful, they lack substantial nutritional value. The corn flavour of some tortilla chips are disguised by heavy application of seasonings, such as in popular Doritos tortilla chips. As consumer purchasing trends shift, there has been an increased demand for healthier varieties of popular foods. Thus, many tortilla chip producers have added whole-wheat varieties into their product line. In a multi-grain version of a tortilla chip, corn, wheat, and chickpea grains are boiled in 1% calcium oxide solution, steeped, washed, and ground before being mixed with soy protein isolate and oat flour to prepare the multi-grain masa.[11] The multi-grain snack contained 153% more protein, 54% more dietary fiber, and 45% less fat than commercial white corn tortilla chips.[11] Its lysine and isoleucine contents helped to increase the corrected-net protein utilization by 10% while digestibility increased from 83.5 to 91.8% as compared to commercial tortilla chips.[11]

Corn Chips

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Tortilla chips are distinguished from corn chips in that tortilla chips are baked and then friend, while corn chips are fried and result in having a higher oil content. Additionally, unlike corn chip products, tortilla chips go through a nixtamalization process, where the corn is soaked before ground, which produces masa.

Additives

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Additives are a unique presence to tortilla chips mainly made in the United States. Additives such as emulsifiers, gums, and acidulants are added to the product to preserve properties of the product, as well as increase the shelf-life of the product. Quality control aspects are monitored and measured during the process of tortilla chip production. These include: temperature, relative humidity of storage of the corn, types of grinding stones used, baking and frying times and temperatures.[10] However, most popular original flavoured tortilla chips, such as Tostitos Restaurant Style tortilla chips, contain no additives or preservatives and is stated so on the ingredients list.

Processing

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Baking

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Baking is one of the many steps in the manufacturing of tortilla chips. They are baked at temperatures of 260°C to 290°C for anywhere between 35 to 50 seconds.[10] The texture of baked tortilla chips are an important factor as it contributes to the acceptability and quality of the tortilla chips.[12] Baking is also important because it enhances the alkaline flavour and reduces the moisture content, as well as the amount of oil that will be absorbed when frying.[10]

Frying

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A few different shapes of tortilla chips. Triangular ones or circular ones are a popular choice.

The tortilla chips are fried in oil after they are baked and cooled. However, cooling is not necessary, but is sometimes done to reduce the amount of blistering that occurs during frying. The tortilla chips are fried in oil with temperatures of 170°C to 190 °C for 50 to 80 seconds.[10] Manufacturing companies use two types of continuous fryers. The fryers are either equipped with direct or indirect heating elements. Indirect fired fryers are more efficient, reducing the processing time. The commercial fryers used by manufacturing companies are able to process anywhere from 160 to 1360 kg/hour of tortilla chips.[10]

Shapes

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Tortilla chips come in a variety of shapes and sizes such as triangles, circles, and rectangular strings.[10] The masa is first rolled into a desired thickness and then a cutter, similar to a cookie cutter, is used by rotating to cut the masa into the shape of the tortilla chip.[13][10] The same cutting process is used for all shapes and sizes, however, a different cutter with the imprints of the desired shape and size is used instead.

Regulations

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Tortilla chips must be made using manufacture practices as outlined in the 21 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) part 110. [14] The FDA website of U.S. Food and Drug Administration provides the regulations for the manufacturing practices that tortilla chips must adhere to. The guidelines are separated into six categories: Subpart A-general provisions, Subpart B-Building and Facilities, Subpart C-Equipment, Subpart D and F-Reserved, Subpart E-Production and Processing Controls, and Subpart G-Defect Action Levels.[15]

The processing regulations are stated in subpart E, in which commercial manufactures must follow:

  1. Raw materials and ingredients must be inspected, handled carefully, and stored under conditions to prevent contamination
  2. Any water that is used must be clean
  3. Containers used must be clean
  4. Raw materials and ingredients must not contain dangerous levels of microorganisms
  5. Raw materials and other ingredients susceptible to contamination with natural toxins, contamination with pests, undesirable microorganisms must adhere to Food and Drug Administration regulations
  6. Raw materials and other ingredients must be stored in containers that protect against contamination. They must also be stored at correct temperatures and humidity levels
  7. Frozen ingredients must be kept properly frozen
  8. Equipments and containers should be maintained in good condition
  9. Throughout processing, the product must be handled in ways that protect against contamination
  10. Procedures must be put into place to protect against metals and other materials from getting into the food
  11. All steps of processing must be performed in a way that prevents contamination
  12. Heat must be applied in correct times and temperatures
  13. Cooling must be done in a sufficient time
  14. Cleaning and sanitizing of containers and surfaces
  15. Use of sanitary handling of food
  16. Monitoring the water content of food
  17. Monitoring the pH of food
  18. The solid-water ratio must be controlled
  19. Controlling amount of acid added
  20. When ice is used, it must be made with safe water
  21. Food manufacturing equipment used for manufacturing food must only be used to manufacture human food[15]

For a detailed document of processing regulations for tortilla chips, please refer to.[15]

Colour

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Tortilla chips can come in an assortment of colours. Colours are added after the frying process when the tortilla chips are still hot. The colour can be added in the form of a liquid seasoning mix which is sprayed on the tortilla chips.[10] Depending on the types of corn used, the final colouring of tortilla chips can be influenced by this. Different types of corn have various naturally occurring coloured pigments associated to them. Differing corn varieties require different cooking times. For example, blue kernels are less dense and have a softer endosperm, resulting in less cooking time.[16] White corn is more dense and have a harder endosperm, resulting in a longer cooking time.[16] Therefore, the processing time is dependent on the type of corn and their physical characteristics because each type of corn kernel requires different processing parameters.

Traditional vs. Store Processed

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The process of making traditional tortilla chips is significantly different from that of the commercially mass produced traditional tortilla chips are made first by cooking corn over a fire, soaking the corn kernels for 8 to 16 hours, then pouring out the corn soaked water. The corn is then washed and ground into masa with hand grinders. Finally the masa is shaped and baked on a hot griddle.[10]

Store processed tortilla chips are commercially produced, resulting in a shelf stable chip.[10]

The process of manufacturing tortilla chips is as follows:

1) Making the dough: water, corn, and lime added in large cooker

2) Mixture is heated indirectly by steam

3) Rapidly cooled

4) Steeped for 8 to 16 hours in a steamer

5) Product is drained of water and washed

6) Product grinded into small pieces

7) Shaped into desired shape using roller

8) Product is baked and cooled

9) Fried

10) Flavoured

11) Cooled, then packaged[10][17]

Packaging

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Tortilla chips can be packaged in a semi-transparent plastic bag, laminated paper or plastic bag that’s been heat sealed by a bagging machine. They must be packaged immediately after cooling to ensure protection against air and moisture which can make fried products lose their crispiness.[10]

MAP

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Oxygen can spoil tortilla chips rapidly by changing the water activity of the tortilla chip as a result of the humidity in the air, making them go soggy.[18] To prevent these consequences, manufactures use a technique called MAP (Modified Atmosphere Packaging). This process occurs when manufacturers alter the normal atmospheric conditions by flushing the bags with a desired gas mixture, nitrogen in this case, before heat sealing the package.[18][19] Having both a protective barrier and the use of modified atmosphere conditions can extend the product's shelf life and provide cushion for the chips to prevent breakage during distribution, storage and handling of the bags.[20] The modified atmosphere can protect foods from loss of nutritional value, microorganism growth and loss of sensory quality as well.

Regulations

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The use of nitrogen gas in low amounts is not dangerous but manufactures must display the net weight of the product so that consumers are aware that the tortilla bags contain a small amount of nitrogen gas.[21]Nitrogen gas is only dangerous when it alters the normal oxygen gas composition drastically. The legal minimum concentration of oxygen for humans is 19.5%, anything below that oxygen composition would lead to fatigue, unconsciousness, and even death.[22] The atmosphere is composed of 78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen.[22][23]

Storage

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Tortilla chips need to be stored in cool and dry places to prevent oxidation of the lipid components of the chip. Upon opening the bag, oxygen in the air can cause the chips to lose their sensory qualities. Storing tortilla chips in an airtight container or sealed will ensure maximum freshness and crispiness.[24]

Labelling

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In Canada tortilla chip bags must contain the 6 core labelling information on bags which are: the common name of the product, the net quantity, contact information of manufacturer responsible, list of ingredients, the nutrition facts table, and bilingual labelling.[25] A durable life date is only mandatory for products with a storage life of 90 days or less. These follow the Consumer Packaging and Labelling Act and Regulations set out by the Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA).

Ecological Impact (Controversy)

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There can be a lot of waste from the packaging after the bag is empty. Some consumers are thrown off by the excessive amounts of packaging and the type of material used during packaging, impacting their decision to buy a product. Although using paper and recyclable bags is more environmentally friendly, clear plastic packaging allows consumers to see exactly what type of product they are getting. Many factors need to be kept in mind when manufacturers decide what type of packaging material to use, such as being able to maintain the quality and safety of the product, waste management, and cost.[26] Currently there is a stronger push for biodegradable materials or packaging that can be recycled but there are always trade offs. For example, biodegradable materials can be more environmentally sustainable but they can be more costly for consumers and manufacturers. One thing manufactures can do to minimize the amount of waste is by reducing the size of the packaging, reducing transportation costs by being able to ship more products out with a decreased greenhouse gas emissions and less waste.[26]

Nutrition

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Health Impacts

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Nutrition facts table for Old Dutch Restaurante Red and White tortilla chips.

Tortilla chips traditionally contain a high amount of sodium and fat due to the deep frying process and consumer preference for saltier snacks. The chips also contain significant amounts of carbohydrates that contribute energy in the form of calories to the body.

1.Sodium

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A diet high in sodium can contribute to an increase risk of high blood pressure.[27] High blood pressure can lead to the development of chronic diseases such as heart disease, stroke or kidney disease.[27]An adequate daily intake of less than 1500mg of sodium has been recommended to promote good long term health for both males and females age 9-50.[28] An upper limit, or maximal amount of sodium, has been set at 2300mg per day.[28] Sodium is often added to tortilla chips to enhance their flavor. The average 50g serving of Tortilla chips can contain anywhere from 0mg to upwards of 230mg of sodium. Current manufacturing practices are looking into how other flavor substitutes such as lime juice can be used to produce desirable flavor without high amounts of sodium.

2. Fat

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Not all fats are considered ‘bad.’ The human body needs 30-45ml of unsaturated fats each day in order to promote optimal function [29] Unsaturated fats come from food sources such as vegetable oils and not from solid sources like butter.[29] Tortilla chips can be made with a variety of oil types, but the heating temperature required is often too high for unsaturated fats to be effectively used. For this reason, manufacturers have relied upon the use of saturated or even trans fats. These unhealthy fats can lead to the development of heart disease when consumed in excess.[29] No total fat intake has been established by any regulatory body, but an intake range of 20-35% of all caloric intake is suggested to come from fats.[28] For a 50g serving of tortilla chips 12g of fat are present on average.

3. Carbohydrates

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Carbohydrates consist of long chains of the sugar molecule glucose linked together in a chain.[30] Upon ingestion, the body uses enzymes to break apart the glycosidic bonds to produce individual glucose molecules. The glucose molecules can then be changed into a variety of smaller molecules to produce energy. Not all sources of carbohydrates are equal, whole grains that contain fibre contribute to the bodies energy amount in a positive way.[31] Simple sugars also contribute energy to the body, but these energy it is short lived and leads to an energy crash. The sugar found within tortilla chips can come from complex carbohydrate sources such as whole grains or from less complex sources like refined wheat. It is recommended that 130 grams of carbohydrates are consumed daily for the average male or female ages 19-30 to maintain good health.[28] A typical 50g serving of tortilla chips contains 32g of carbohydrates.

Factors Affecting Fat Content of Tortilla Chips

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A variety of factors affect the oil uptake of tortilla chips during the frying and cooling processes. Oil quality, pre-frying preparation and particle size distribution caused by flour viscosity all play a role.[32] It is useful to understand the effects that these have upon oil uptake in order for manufacturers to ensure the highest quality possible in their product and to better understand how to control oil absorption throughout processing to produce a lower fat-content product.

1.Baking time

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As a tortilla chip fries, the water inside the chip undergoes a transition to steam that prevents large uptake of oil.[33] Less than 50% of the total oil content is absorbed during the actual frying practice. Instead, majority of the absorbed oil occurs during the cooling phase.[32] This observation is explained by the fact that during the first few seconds of frying the starch within the flour undergoes gelatinization, causing the inner pores to swell up and block oil uptake. [32] When the chip is allowed to cool, the pores shrink allowing oil to replace the spaces where water has been evaporated from. It has been suggested that an increase in pre-baking of the tortilla chips before frying them decreases the amount of oil they consequently absorb.[32] Pre-baking may offer manufacturers a method of reducing the amount of oil that enters into the chips, lowering the fat content of them.

2. Flour composition

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Coarser flour can help reduce the amount of oil uptake found in tortilla chips as the larger particles allow water to escape during frying (creating the crunchy texture) without allowing for as much oil to be absorbed from the surface upon cooling.[32] The quality of oil chosen for frying hasn’t been well documented to have an effect on oil absorption overall but it has been observed that the use of fresh oil produces tortilla chips with less oil concentrated at the surface.[32] The use of a coarser flour mixture in combination with greater pre-baking time and fresh oil may produce tortilla chips that have the satisfying crunch associated to them with a reduction in oil absorption.

3. Processing technique

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Other methods to decrease the fat content of tortilla chips revolve around the use of completely different drying techniques then deep frying. Vacuum drying is currently being considered as an alternative to deep frying.[34] Vacuum dried chips possess a significantly decreased oil content, around 1.5-1/8g fat for 100 grams of chip compared to deep frying with 33-38 grams of fat per 100 of chip.[34] Tortilla chips processed using this technique have been found to have the same crispness as their deep fried counterparts, better color retention but a less savory taste.[34] It is possible for processing techniques to incorporate seasoning or other flavor compounds to compensate for the decrease in oil that is responsible for the savory sensation. Baking of tortilla chips is also being explored as a possible processing technique to reduce the fat content of tortilla chips.

4. Oil type

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Different types of oils are being investigated for the role they play in overall fat content of the finished tortilla chip. Historically, hydrogenated fats that contained large amounts of trans fats were used. Trans fats consist of fatty acid tails with double bonds in the trans conformation and are more harmful than saturated fats in their link to cardiac disease.[35] These fats are associated with negative implications on consumer health and in response, the research community is exploring the use of modified fatty acid composition oils to replace them.[36] These compounds are stable to deep frying temperatures unlike some polyunsaturated vegetable oils, making them a potential replacement. It is crucial to investigate further the oxidation capabilities of tortilla chips produced using these new modified oils to understand how their storage life, fat content and flavor degradation over time will be affected.

Options

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Many different types of tortilla chips are available on the consumer market today. Different types of flour are responsible for creating the different colors or associated properties within the tortilla chips.

1.Blue corn

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Blue corn contains anthocyanins, the compounds that give rise to its blue color and may help offer antioxidant properties.[16] Antioxidants act as a ‘protective coating’ on cells to prevent harmful compounds or the natural aging process from degrading them.[37] Blue corn is also suggested to have a lower glycemic index than yellow or white corn, making it a safer option for diabetics.[38] The higher a glycemic index of the food, the larger the blood glucose spike it causes, posing a potential challenge for people who are unable to properly absorb glucose.[39]

2. Red corn

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The color of red corn is also found to be caused by anthocyanins, giving it the same antioxidant potential as blue corn.

Red and white/yellow corn tortilla chips

[40] Red corn is often associated with a sweeter and nuttier flavor, potentially resulting in a different flavored tortilla chip.[40]

3. White corn/yellow corn

[edit]

White or yellow corn is often associated has having less antioxidant properties[38][16] reduced protein and higher starch content. However, the molecular makeup of this type of corn is favorable for manufacturer production in tortilla chips.[16] The reduction in nutritional value of the corn is made up for by the creation of a more consumer acceptable product. White corn processes at the high deep frying temperatures in an ideal way to create the satisfying texture that is associated with a tortilla chip. White corn also contain trace amounts of minerals that the body needs such as magnesium, phosphorus and potassium, although they are not in any significant amount.[41]

4. Wheat tortilla chips

[edit]

Wheat flour can be used as an alternative to corn in the processing of tortilla chips. Wheat can be easily grown in a variety of climates, making it favorable for some manufacturers to rely on it’s production. Wheat flour can exist in many forms within itself. Whole wheat flour or red flour differs from white flour in color, taste and growth climate.[42] White wheat flour has a milder taste than whole wheat, making it easier to process and sweeten.[42] However, in order for the whole wheat to be transformed into white wheat the two outer layers, germ and bran, are removed from innermost later referred to as the endosperm.[43] This refining results in the loss of many nutrients such as fiber, vitamins and minerals that are found within the outer layers.[43] Not all wheat flour is refined, whole wheat still contains nutrients that can contribute to a healthy diet. Whole grains have been associated with containing higher dietary fiber that can help lower cholesterol and promote feelings of fullness.[44]

5. Mixed flour blends

[edit]

Modern health trends have seen the creation of tortilla chips composed of flour blends. These blends can include anything from wheat and corn to quinoa, chickpeas or black bean. Consumer demand for lower fat, less sodium containing tortilla chips that still have the same crunch and taste has spurred the recent innovations in tortilla chip ingredients.[11] Different compounds come with their own unique characteristics that can enhance the nutritional value of the chip. For example, quinoa contains antioxidant properties as well as heart healthy polyunsaturated fats that can contribute to a reduction in heart disease.[45] While using a mixed blend consisting of corn, wheat, oat soy and chickpea flour has been found to contain significantly less fat while promoting greater protein content of the chips.[11] Research is currently ongoing into how different flour combinations can enhance the nutritional value of tortilla chips without sacrificing taste or texture.

Allergies/Certain diet types

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Every person has varying diet preferences. Some people choose to avoid certain foods based upon taste, occupation, religion or physical needs.

1. Celiac Disease

[edit]

Celiac disease is characterized when the cells of an individual's intestinal layer are damaged by the protein gluten and consequently prevents the uptake of other nutrients upon ingestion.[46] Gluten is found within grain sources such as wheat, rye or barley and can be found within certain types of tortilla chips that stems from these sources. Traditional corn Tortilla chips do not contain gluten as they are made of corn and if they are processed in a certified gluten free facility, they are often safe for celiacs to consume. Tortilla chips that contain wheat flour or are processed in facilities where the gluten protein may come into contact with the chips are typically not safe for celiac consumption.

2. Gluten intolerance

[edit]

Gluten intolerance while very similar in context to celiac disease, is not the same thing. Individuals with this sensitivity may feel abdominal pain upon ingestion of gluten but do not experience the same intestinal damage.[47] Tortilla chips processed in facilities containing wheat or other sources of gluten can be safe for gluten sensitive consumption. In small amounts, wheat itself may also be consumed without any adverse effects, current research is looking into this phenomenon.[47]

A girl eating tortilla chips with pico de gallo

Tex-Mex and Mexican cuisine

[edit]

Tortilla chips are the quintessential and often complimentary appetizer in Tex-Mex and Mexican restaurants in the U.S. and elsewhere. Their popularity outside of California saw a steady rise in the late 1970s when they began to compete with corn chips, the dipping chip of choice during the first three quarters of the 20th century. They are typically served with a dip, such as salsa, chile con queso, or guacamole. When not served with a dip, the chips are often seasoned with herbs and spices. Although they are now available worldwide, the United States is one of the main markets for tortilla chips. Commercial brand names for tortilla chips include Phileas Fogg snacks, Tostitos, Doritos, and Don Tacos (in Japan).

A more elaborate dish utilizing tortilla chips is nachos. First created circa 1943 by Ignacio "Nacho" Anaya,[48][49][50] nachos are tortilla chips served with melted or shredded cheese, although often other toppings are added or substituted, such as meat, salsa (such as pico de gallo), refried beans, guacamole, sour cream, diced onions, olives, and pickled jalapeños. More elaborate nachos are often baked for a short period of time to warm the tortillas and melt shredded cheese.

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "Tortilla Food Facts and Trivia". www.foodreference.com. Retrieved 2016-03-21.
  2. ^ a b c "16 Delicious Facts for National Tortilla Chip Day". Mental Floss. Retrieved 2016-03-23.
  3. ^ a b Nelson, Valerie J. (2006-02-07). "Rebecca Webb Carranza, 98; Pioneered Creation, Manufacture of Tortilla Chip". Los Angeles Times. ISSN 0458-3035. Retrieved 2016-03-21.
  4. ^ a b "Rebecca Carranza; a pioneer of the tortilla chip; 98 | The San Diego Union-Tribune". www.sandiegouniontribune.com. Retrieved 2016-03-21.
  5. ^ "Leading tortilla chip brands sales of the U.S., 2015 | Statistic". Statista. Retrieved 2016-03-21.
  6. ^ "Tortilla Chip Day". Days Of The Year. Retrieved 2016-03-21.
  7. ^ a b c Khalsa, Nirbhao (March 1994). "Methods For Making Tortilla Chips And Tortilla Chips Produced Thereby". US Patent.
  8. ^ "Masa".
  9. ^ "16 Delicious Facts About National Tortilla Chip Day".
  10. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n "Tortilla Chips". How Products Are Made. Retrieved March 20, 2016.
  11. ^ a b c d e Islas- Rubio, Alma Rosa (March 2014). "Development and Evaluation of a Nutritionally Enhanced Multigrain Tortilla Snack". Plant Foods For Human Nutrition.
  12. ^ Kayacier, A & Singh, RK 2003, 'Textural properties of baked tortilla chips', Food Science Department, vol.36, no. 5, pp. 463-466. Available from <http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0023643802002220> [18 February 2016]
  13. ^ Triwood1973 (2009-09-16), How Tortilla Chips Are Made, retrieved 2016-03-21{{citation}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  14. ^ "Commercial Item Description Tortillas, Tortilla Chips, Taco Shells, and Tostada Shells" (PDF).
  15. ^ a b c "CFR - Code of Federal Regulations Title 21". www.accessdata.fda.gov. Retrieved 2016-03-21.
  16. ^ a b c d e Pozo-Insfran, David Del; Saldivar, Sergio O. Serna; Brenes, Carmen H.; Talcott, Stephen T. "Polyphenolics and Antioxidant Capacity of White and Blue Corns Processed into Tortillas and Chips". Cereal Chemistry. 84 (2): 162–168. doi:10.1094/cchem-84-2-0162.
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  18. ^ a b Del Nobile, M. A (2001-02-01). "Packaging design for potato chips". Journal of Food Engineering. 47 (3): 211–215. doi:10.1016/S0260-8774(00)00118-7.
  19. ^ "Course:FNH200/Lesson 07 - UBC Wiki". wiki.ubc.ca. Retrieved 2016-03-21.
  20. ^ Samotyja, Urszula; Kozak, Wojciech (2015-06-01). "Headspace oxygen measurements can be used as a fast and convenient method for shelf-life assessment of potato snacks". European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology. 117 (6): 851–857. doi:10.1002/ejlt.201400333. ISSN 1438-9312.
  21. ^ "Why Are Potato Chip Bags Always Half-Empty?". Mental Floss. Retrieved 2016-03-20.
  22. ^ a b "Use Nitrogen Safely" (PDF). AirProducts. March 2012. Retrieved March 20, 2016.
  23. ^ "Air Composition". www.engineeringtoolbox.com. Retrieved 2016-03-21.
  24. ^ "7 Unique Ways To Seal Potato Chip Bags To Keep Chips Fresh | Fun Times Guide to Food and Cooking". Food and Cooking. Retrieved 2016-03-21.
  25. ^ Agency, Government of Canada,Canadian Food Inspection. "Food Labelling for Industry". www.inspection.gc.ca. Retrieved 2016-03-23.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  26. ^ a b "Food Packaging and Its Environmental Impact - IFT.org". www.ift.org. Retrieved 2016-03-21.
  27. ^ a b Dietitians of Canada. (2016). Sodium. Retrieved from http://www.dietitians.ca/Your-Health/Nutrition-A-Z/Sodium.aspx
  28. ^ a b c d Health Canada. (2016). Dietary Reference Intake Tables. Retrieved from http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fn-an/nutrition/reference/table/index-eng.php
  29. ^ a b c Health Canada. (2015). What Type and Amount of Fat Do I Need?. Retrieved from http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fn-an/food-guide-aliment/choose-choix/oil-huile/oil-huile-eng.php
  30. ^ Reusch, William. "Carbohydrates". MSU Chemistry. Retrieved 21 March 2016.
  31. ^ Government of Canada. (2012). Carbohydrates. Retrieved from http://healthycanadians.gc.ca/eating-nutrition/healthy-eating-saine-alimentation/nutrients-nutriments/table_carbohydrates-glucides-eng.php
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