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User:LhikJovan/Mermaid construction

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A mermaid construction (人魚構文, ningyo kōbun) is a type of grammatical construction found among several of the world's language families, includingJaponic, Ainuic, Korean, Sino-Tibetan, Austronesian, Kra-Dai Mongolic, Dravidian, Yukaghir, Indo-Aryan, Chukotko-Kamchatkan, Tungusic, and Cushitic.[1] The description "mermaid" refers to two-halved nature: one part of the sentence resembles a verbal sentence, while the other part resembles a copular sentence.

Mermaid constructions appear to be mostly localized around East, Southeast, and South Asia. However, they are by no means limited to this area, as evidenced by their presence in the Yukaghir languages of Siberia and Sidaama language of Ethiopia.

Definition

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As defined by Tsunoda (2013), a prototypical mermaid construction is defined by several key criteria:

  1. It has a structure consisting of three "slots": clause + noun + copula, in that order.
  2. The noun is an independent noun.
  3. The clause's subject and the noun are not coreferential.
  4. The clause can occur as an independent sentence.
  5. The clause is not the subject of the sentence noun + copula.

These prototypical criteria are based on the mermaid construction as found in Japanese, the first language for which the construction was studied in-depth. Many languages' mermaid constructions differ somewhat from this prototype, including some examples in Japanese, and those that deviate significantly are sometimes called "quasi-mermaid constructions." Some deviations include:

  • Use of verbs other than a copula, or of a zero copula, in the copula slot. (Variation in #1)
  • Use of a different word order than clause + noun + copula. (Variation in #1)
  • Use of a clitic, noun-derived affix, or zero for the noun slot. (Variation in #2)
  • Use of nominalized, attributive, or other non-finite forms for the verb of the clause. (Variation in #4)

Individual mermaid constructions are usually differentiated from each other by the morpheme that is used in the noun slot.

Examples

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In each of the example sentences in the following sections, the noun will be marked in bold text, and the clause in red.

Japonic languages

[edit]

Mermaid constructions are found in abundance among Japonic languages in general.

Japanese

[edit]

Mermaid constructions were first studied in-depth as Japanese constructions. Tasaku et al. (2013) identified more than 106 nouns that can be used in prototypical mermaid constructions in Modern Standard Japanese, including:

Grammaticalized Noun Etymological Meaning Function Example
予定 yotei plan planning *

花子は

Hanako=wa

Hanako=TOP

名古屋に

Nagoya=ni

Nagoya=DAT/LOC

行く

ik-u

go-NPST

予定だ。

yotei=da

plan=COP.NPST

花子は 名古屋に 行く 予定だ。

Hanako=wa Nagoya=ni ik-u yotei=da

Hanako=TOP Nagoya=DAT/LOC go-NPST plan=COP.NPST

"Hanako plans to go to Nagoya."

tokoro place, location aspectual, temporal, formal *

花子は

Hanako=wa

Hanako=TOP

本を

hon=o

book=ACC

読んで

yon-de

read-GER

いる

i-ru

be-NPST

ところだ。

tokoro=da

place=COP.NPST

花子は 本を 読んで いる ところだ。

Hanako=wa hon=o yon-de i-ru tokoro=da

Hanako=TOP book=ACC read-GER be-NPST place=COP.NPST

"Hanako is reading a book."

模様 moyō appearance, figure, model seeming, appearing *

外では

soto=de=wa

outside=LOC/INS=TOP

雨が

ame=ga

rain=NOM

降って

fut-te

fall-GER

いる

i-ru

be-NPST

模様だ。

moyō=da

appearance=COP.NPST

外では 雨が 降って いる 模様だ。

soto=de=wa ame=ga fut-te i-ru moyō=da

outside=LOC/INS=TOP rain=NOM fall-GER be-NPST appearance=COP.NPST

"It appears/seems to be raining outside."

表情 hyōjō facial expression expression, appearance *

花子は

Hanako=wa

Hanako=TOP

いつも

itsumo

always

明るい

akaru-i

cheerful-NPST

表情だ。

hyōjō=da

expression=COP.NPST

花子は いつも 明るい 表情だ。

Hanako=wa itsumo akaru-i hyōjō=da

Hanako=TOP always cheerful-NPST expression=COP.NPST

"Hanako always looks cheerful."

積り tsumori estimation intention, decision, evaluation *

花子は

Hanako=wa

Hanako=TOP

本を

hon=o

book=ACC

書く

kak-u

write-NPST

つもりだ。

tsumori=da

intention=COP.NPST

花子は 本を 書く つもりだ。

Hanako=wa hon=o kak-u tsumori=da

Hanako=TOP book=ACC write-NPST intention=COP.NPST

"Hanako intends to write a book."

  • 花子は

    Hanako=wa

    Hanako=TOP

    天才で

    tensai=de

    genius=COP.GER

    ある

    ar-u

    be-NPST

    つもりだ。

    tsumori=da

    evaluation=COP.NPST

    花子は 天才で ある つもりだ。

    Hanako=wa tensai=de ar-u tsumori=da

    Hanako=TOP genius=COP.GER be-NPST evaluation=COP.NPST

    "Hanako considers herself to be a genius."

hazu nock expectation, schedule, realization *

花子は

Hanako=wa

Hanako=TOP

明日

ashita

tomorrow

名古屋へ

Nagoya=e

Nagoya=ALL

行く

ik-u

go-NPST

はずだ。

hazu=da

expectation=COP.NPST

花子は 明日 名古屋へ 行く はずだ。

Hanako=wa ashita Nagoya=e ik-u hazu=da

Hanako=TOP tomorrow Nagoya=ALL go-NPST expectation=COP.NPST

"Hanako is expected to go to Nagoya tomorrow."

no (nominalizer & complementizer) cause, reason, etc. *

試験が

shiken=ga

examination=NOM

ある

ar-u

be-NPST

だ。

=no=da

=no=COP.NPST

試験が ある だ。

shiken=ga ar-u =no=da

examination=NOM be-NPST =no=COP.NPST

"This is because there will be an examination."

The closely related Hachijō language also contains mermaid constructions with nouns such as toko "place," moN "thing," hazu "expectation," and go͡oN "seeming."

Old and Middle Japanese

[edit]

Mermaid constructions are attested throughout the entire history of Japanese, the earliest being found in Old Japanese in the Man'yōshū, where the phrase mono2 so2 "a person, a thing" is used (with a zero copula) to express inevitability, obligation, and related meanings:

(1)
久礼奈為波/宇都呂布母能曾/都流波美能/奈礼爾之伎奴爾/奈保之可米夜母
kurenawi pa / uturo2pu mo2no2 so2 // turupami1 no2 / narenisi ki1nu ni / napo sikame2 ya mo2

kurenawi=pa

carthamin=TOP

uturo2p-u

fade.away-ADN

mono=so2

thing=FOC

//

//

turupami1=no2

acorn.color=GEN

nare-n-i(1)-si

get.used.to-PFV-INF-PST.ADN

ki1nu=ni

clothes=DAT

napo

further

sik-am-e2

reach-TENT-EXCL

ya

FOC

mo2

TOP

kurenawi=pa uturo2p-u mono=so2 // turupami1=no2 nare-n-i(1)-si ki1nu=ni napo sik-am-e2 ya mo2

carthamin=TOP fade.away-ADN thing=FOC // acorn.color=GEN get.used.to-PFV-INF-PST.ADN clothes=DAT further reach-TENT-EXCL FOC TOP

"Red (is flashy, but) is destined to fade. There is no match for a brown, well-used kimono."
(Man'yōshū Book 18, Poem 4109)

(2)
古衣/打棄人者/秋風之/立來時爾/物念物其
purukoromo / utituru pito pa / akikaze no / tatikuru toki nimonomopu mono so2.

puru-ko2ro2mo2

old-clothes

utit-uru

discard-ADN

pi1to2=pa

person=TOP

aki1-kaze=no2

autumn-wind=GEN

tat-i(1)-k-uru

stand-INF-come-ADN

to2ki1=ni

time=DAT

mo2no2-(o)mo2p-u

thing-think-ADN

mo2no2=so2

thing=FOC

puru-ko2ro2mo2 utit-uru pi1to2=pa aki1-kaze=no2 tat-i(1)-k-uru to2ki1=ni mo2no2-(o)mo2p-u mo2no2=so2

old-clothes discard-ADN person=TOP autumn-wind=GEN stand-INF-come-ADN time=DAT thing-think-ADN thing=FOC

"Someone who throws away old clothes is bound to think about things when the autumn wind comes."
Poetic meaning: "The kind of man who deserts his wife who he has been married to for a long time is bound to regret it when his days are over."
(Man'yōshū Book 11, Poem 2626)

This construction continued to be used in Early Middle Japanese in the form ものぞ mono zo. Early Middle Japanese also attests many more prototypical mermaid constructions:

(3)
ゆふやみにはものをおもはぬけしきなり
(夕闇には、物を想はぬ氣色なり。)

yufuyami=ni=fa

dusk=DAT=TOP

mono=wo

thing=ACC

omof-an-u

consider-NEG-ADN

kesiki=nar-i

sign=COP-CONCL

yufuyami=ni=fa mono=wo omof-an-u kesiki=nar-i

dusk=DAT=TOP thing=ACC consider-NEG-ADN sign=COP-CONCL

"In the dusk, (Princess Kaguya) seems to not be worried about anything."
(Taketori Monogatari)

Unlike Modern Japanese, Old and Middle Japanese distinguished attributive and sentence-concluding forms of verbs, meaning that the clause was not necessarily able to appear as an independent sentence.

Miyako

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The Irabu dialect of the Miyako language has mermaid constructions quite similar to Japanese. However, as Irabu Miyako allows for a zero copula, the copula slot is often empty. Some example nouns for mermaid constructions in Irabu are:

Grammaticalized Noun Etymological Meaning Function Example
kutu fact deontic modal, anticipated future *
Vvaa zzair kutu.

vva=a

2SG=TOP

z-zai-r

scold-PASS-ADN.NPST

kutu

be.supposed.to

vva=a z-zai-r kutu

2SG=TOP scold-PASS-ADN.NPST be.supposed.to

"You are supposed to be scolded."

  • Uriubaa mainic as kutudooi.

    uri-u-baa

    that=ACC=TOP

    mainic

    everyday

    as

    do.ADN.NPST

    kutu=dooi

    should=EMPH

    uri-u-baa mainic as kutu=dooi

    that=ACC=TOP everyday do.ADN.NPST should=EMPH

    "(You) should do that everyday."

munu thing causal *
Jamatukara hikookisii cciur munu.

jamatu=kara

mainland=ABL

hikooki=sii

airplane=INS

c-ci-u-r

come-THM-PROG-ADN.NPST

munu

because

jamatu=kara hikooki=sii c-ci-u-r munu

mainland=ABL airplane=INS come-THM-PROG-ADN.NPST because

"because (he) came from mainland Japan by airplane"

-paz nock conjecture *
Karia pzsarakara ttarpaz.

kari=a

3SG=TOP

pzsara=kara

Hirara=ABL

t-tar=paz

come-ADN.PST=maybe

kari=a pzsara=kara t-tar=paz

3SG=TOP Hirara=ABL come-ADN.PST=maybe

"He may have come from Hirara."

-suu ~ -ruu person, thing evidential? *
Pztunu jaanu suijagaman ikii mmna parrii ukiarruu.

pztu=nu

person=GEN

jaa=nu

house=GEN

suija-gama=n

balcony-DIM=DAT

ik-i-i

go-THM-MED

mmna

all

par-ri-i

leave-THM-MED

uk-i-ar=ruu

put-THM-RSL.ADN.NPST=it.seems

pztu=nu jaa=nu suija-gama=n ik-i-i mmna par-ri-i uk-i-ar=ruu

person=GEN house=GEN balcony-DIM=DAT go-THM-MED all leave-THM-MED put-THM-RSL.ADN.NPST=it.seems

"It seemed that (they) had gone to the balcony of someone's house, and had all entered (under it)."

Sino-Tibetan languages

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In addition to in the varieties described below, mermaid constructions have been found in the Lolo-Burmese Lahu language, the Sal Jingpho language, and in Central Tibetan.

Amdo Tibetan

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Amdo Tibetan is one of the four main spoken Tibetic languages within the Sino-Tibetan language family. Amdo Tibetan has six independent nouns that can be used in mermaid constructions:

Grammaticalized Noun Etymological Meaning Function Example
ntɕʰarʑə plan intention *

ཨ་པ་ གིས

arɟa=kə

father=ERG

ནོར

nor

yak

བཙོངས

ptsoŋ-ɟu

sell.IPF-NMLZ.GEN

འཆར་གཞི་

ntɕʰarʑə

plan

རེད

COPB

{ཨ་པ་ གིས} ནོར བཙོངས འཆར་གཞི་ རེད

arɟa=kə nor ptsoŋ-ɟu ntɕʰarʑə

father=ERG yak sell.IPF-NMLZ.GEN plan COPB

"(My) father plans to sell yaks."

le karma destiny *

ཁུར་གེ་

kʰərgɛ

3SG

མཐའ་མ་

mtʰama=a

last=DAT

ཕམ་ཁ་

pʰamkʰa

defeat

ཉོ་རྒྱུ་

ȵo-ɟu

buy.IPF-NMLZ.GEN

ལས

le

karma

རེད

COPB

ཁུར་གེ་ མཐའ་མ་ ཕམ་ཁ་ ཉོ་རྒྱུ་ ལས རེད

kʰərgɛ mtʰama=a pʰamkʰa ȵo-ɟu le

3SG last=DAT defeat buy.IPF-NMLZ.GEN karma COPB

"He/she was destined to suffer a defeat after all."

bkopa way, manner decision, planning, future *

ང་

ŋa

1SG

ཁེར་

kʰɛrndək

being.single

X X

jɛc-cu

do.IPF-NMLZ.GEN

X

bkopa

way

X

jən

COPA

ང་ ཁེར་ {X X} X X

ŋa kʰɛrndək jɛc-cu bkopa jən

1SG being.single do.IPF-NMLZ.GEN way COPA

"It have decided to remain single."

tsʰəkka appearance counterfactual evidential *

ཁུར་རྒེ་

kʰərgɛ

3SG

X

hpo

anger

ལང་ X ནོའི

laŋ=go=nu

rise.up=AUX=NMLZ.GEN

ཚུགས་ཀ་

tsʰəkka

appearance

རེད

COPB

ཁུར་རྒེ་ X {ལང་ X ནོའི} ཚུགས་ཀ་ རེད

kʰərgɛ hpo laŋ=go=nu tsʰəkka

3SG anger rise.up=AUX=NMLZ.GEN appearance COPB

"He looks angry (but actually he is not angry)."

ndʑoŋwa character, nature by nature, habitual aspect *

ཁུར་རྒེ་

kʰərgɛ

3SG

དྲང་མོ་

ʈaŋmo

honest

ཡིན་ནོའི་

jən=nu

COPA=NMLZ.GEN

X

ndʑoŋwa

nature

རེད

COPB

ཁུར་རྒེ་ དྲང་མོ་ ཡིན་ནོའི་ X རེད

kʰərgɛ ʈaŋmo jən=nu ndʑoŋwa

3SG honest COPA=NMLZ.GEN nature COPB

"He is honest by nature."

xwe habit, custom habitual aspect, deontic modality *

ཁུར་རྒེ་

kʰərgɛ

3SG

ལས་ཀ་

lehka

work

མ་ལས་ནོའི

mə-le=nu

NEG-do=NMLZ.GEN

དཔེ?

xwe

habit

རེད

COPB

ཁུར་རྒེ་ ལས་ཀ་ མ་ལས་ནོའི དཔེ? རེད

kʰərgɛ lehka mə-le=nu xwe

3SG work NEG-do=NMLZ.GEN habit COPB

"It is his habit not to work."

  • ཡི་ཀེ་

    jəkɛ

    everyone

    སློབ་གྲྭར

    ɬopʈa=a

    school=DAT

    འགྱོ་

    nɟo

    go.IPF

    དགོས་ནོའི

    rgo=nu

    need=NMLZ.GEN

    དཔེ?

    xwe

    custom

    རེད

    COPB

    ཡི་ཀེ་ སློབ་གྲྭར འགྱོ་ དགོས་ནོའི དཔེ? རེད

    jəkɛ ɬopʈa=a nɟo rgo=nu xwe

    everyone school=DAT go.IPF need=NMLZ.GEN custom COPB

    "Everyone needs to go to school (due to the custom of society)."

In addition to these six nouns, Amdo Tibetan also has several clitics and affixes that can be used in the noun slot, such as =kʰawo "mood, appearance" and =ɟə ~ =cə "thing to do, value of doing."

nDrapa

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nDrapa or Zhaba is a Qiangic language within the Sino-Tibetan language family. nDrapa has four morphemes that can appear in the noun slot of its mermaid constructions:

ndei3 ~ =ndei
Expresses a plan or intention.
(1)
original

somuȵi3

tomorrow

no1

2SG

tɕhei3

what

mɵ=ndei3

make=intention

wa3

COP1‍

somuȵi3 no1 tɕhei3 mɵ=ndei3 wa3

tomorrow 2SG what make=intention COP1‍

"What do you intend to do tomorrow?"

-zɨ
Expresses an expectation.
(2)
original

anʌ3

today

ȵjɛ=ʈo1

1PL=place

lɛmɛ3

monk

vo-3

come-prospect

3

COP4‍

anʌ3 ȵjɛ=ʈo1 lɛmɛ3 vo-zɨ3 rɛ3

today 1PL=place monk come-prospect COP4‍

"A monk is scheduled to come to our home today."

nkhei1 ~ =nkhei
Expresses evidentiality such as seeming or appearance.
(3)
original

ŋoro1

3SG

kaoʈoŋ1

high.school

l̥o=ɕi2

learn=wish

ɦdi=ʈɨ3

think=IPFV

nkhei1

appearance

3

COP4‍

ŋoro1 kaoʈoŋ1 l̥o=ɕi2 ɦdi=ʈɨ3 nkhei1 rɛ3

3SG high.school learn=wish think=IPFV appearance COP4‍

"He seems to want to go to high school."

mʌlo3
Expresses readiness to perform an action.
(4)
original

ŋoro1

3SG

ȵjɛ=ʈo1

1PL=place

kɨ-m̥i-a1

INW-sleep-RT

mʌlo3

readiness

ʈɛ3

COP3‍

ŋoro1 ȵjɛ=ʈo1 kɨ-m̥i-a1 mʌlo3 ʈɛ3

3SG 1PL=place INW-sleep-RT readiness COP3‍

"He is ready to sleep in our house."

Newar

[edit]

Newar or Nepāl Bhāṣā is a Newaric language within the Sino-Tibetan language family. In the Kathmandu–Patan dialect of Newar, there are two morphemes that can appear in the noun slot of its mermaid constructions:

=gu bhāgya
Expresses that an action was destined, lucky, or otherwise caused by fate. This construction uses the noun bhāgya "fate, destiny, lot, luck," borrowed from Sanskrit भाग्य bhāgya.
(1)

व​एक​:या

waekaː=yā

3.HON=GEN

ज्यल​ए

jyal=ae

jail=LOC

सि:

siː

die-INF

मा:गु

māː=gu

need.NFND=NMLZ

भाग्य

bhāgya

fate

जुय

juy-a

COP-CM

च्वन​।

cwan-a.

CONT-NFPD

व​एक​:या ज्यल​ए सि: मा:गु भाग्य जुय च्वन​।

waekaː=yā jyal=ae siː māː=gu bhāgya juy-a cwan-a.

3.HON=GEN jail=LOC die-INF need.NFND=NMLZ fate COP-CM CONT-NFPD

"That person was destined to die in the jail."

inanimate nominalizer =gu
Expresses a variety of meanings such as assertion, explanation, and elaboration.
(2)

राम्

rām

Ram

दाक्तर्

dāktar

doctor

जु:गु

juː=gu

COP.NFND=NMLZ

ख​:।

khaː

COP.NFND

राम् दाक्तर् जु:गु ख​:।

rām dāktar juː=gu khaː

Ram doctor COP.NFND=NMLZ COP.NFND

"(It is the case that) Ram has become a doctor."

(3)

चान​ए

cān=ae

night=LOC

वा

rain

व​:गु

waː=gu

come.NFND=NMLZ

ख​ए

kha-e

COP-INF

मा:।

māː

should.NFND

चान​ए वा व​:गु ख​ए मा:।

cān=ae wā waː=gu kha-e māː

night=LOC rain come.NFND=NMLZ COP-INF should.NFND

"It must have rained during the night."

Burmese

[edit]

Burmese is a Lolo-Burmese language within the Sino-Tibetan language family. Burmese has many morphemes that can appear in the noun slot of its mermaid constructions; among them are:

pòuɴ "shape"
Expresses evidentiality such as seeming or appearance.
(1)

X

t̪ù

3SG

X

this

X

híɴ=ɡò

curry=KO

X

sá=dɛ̂

eat=AN

X

pòuɴ(=bɛ́)

shape(=EMPH)

X X X X X

t̪ù dì híɴ=ɡò sá=dɛ̂ pòuɴ(=bɛ́)

3SG this curry=KO eat=AN shape(=EMPH)

"It seems that he ate this curry."

hàɴ "appearance"
Expresses evidentiality such as seeming or appearance.
(2)

X

t̪ù

3SG

X

this

X

híɴ=ɡò

curry=KO

X

sá=dɛ̂

eat=AN

X

hàɴ(=bɛ́)

appearance(=EMPH)

X X X X X

t̪ù dì híɴ=ɡò sá=dɛ̂ hàɴ(=bɛ́)

3SG this curry=KO eat=AN appearance(=EMPH)

"It seems that he ate this curry."

d̪ăbɔ́ "nature"
Expresses an assertion or a statement of fact.
(3)

X

t̪ù

3SG

X

this

X

híɴ=ɡò

curry=KO

X

măhlwɛ́d̪àlô

against.one's.will

X

sá=dɛ̂

eat=AN

X

d̪ăbɔ́(=bɛ́)

nature(=EMPH)

X X X X X X

t̪ù dì híɴ=ɡò măhlwɛ́d̪àlô sá=dɛ̂ d̪ăbɔ́(=bɛ́)

3SG this curry=KO against.one's.will eat=AN nature(=EMPH)

"It is that he unwillingly ate this curry."

shɛ́zɛ́ "moment just before"
Expresses that an action is or was about to happen.
(4)

X

t̪ù

3SG

X

this

X

híɴ=ɡò

curry=KO

X

sá=mɛ̂

eat=AN

X

shɛ́zɛ́(=bɛ́)

just.before(=EMPH)

X X X X X

t̪ù dì híɴ=ɡò sá=mɛ̂ shɛ́zɛ́(=bɛ́)

3SG this curry=KO eat=AN just.before(=EMPH)

"He is about to eat this curry."

Mandarin Chinese

[edit]

Mandarin is the dominant variety of Chinese within the Sino-Tibetan language family. Mermaid constructions in Mandarin are distinct from the Japanese-based prototype in that Mandarin's word order is subject–verb–object, not subject–object–verb. Mandarin mermaid constructions can occur in the following two structures:

  1. subject1 + copula + clause1 + noun
  2. subject (clause1) + copula + clause2 + noun

In structure 1, the subject1 is the subject of clause1. In structure 2, clause1 is the subject of the entire sentence.

Mandarin mermaid constructions can use the following nouns:

样子 yàngzi "appearance, expression"
Expresses evidentiality such as seeming or appearance.
(1)

大家

Dàjiā

everyone

dōu

all

shì

COP

松了

sōng-le

relax-ASP

one

kǒu

CL

breath

de

PART

样子

yàngzi

appearance

大家 都 是 松了 一 口 气 的 样子

Dàjiā dōu shì sōng-le yì kǒu qì de yàngzi

everyone all COP relax-ASP one CL breath PART appearance

"Everyone seemed to be relieved."

缘故 yuángù "reason, circumstance"
Expresses a reason. (Uses structure 2.)
(2)

冯庆

Féng Qìng

Feng Qing

cóng

from

xiǎo

young

便

biàn

already

长得

zhǎng-de

grow-PART

细高

xìgāo

tall.and.slender

精瘦

jīngshòu

thin

大概

dàgài

probably

shì

COP

chī

eat

fàn

meal

时中

shǐzhōng

throughout

méi

NEG

yǒu

have

胃口

wèikǒu

appetite

de

PART

缘故

yuángù

reason

冯庆 从 小 便 长得 细高 精瘦 大概 是 吃 饭 时中 没 有 胃口 的 缘故

{Féng Qìng} cóng xiǎo biàn zhǎng-de xìgāo jīngshòu dàgài shì chī fàn shǐzhōng méi yǒu wèikǒu de yuángù

{Feng Qing} from young already grow-PART tall.and.slender thin probably COP eat meal throughout NEG have appetite PART reason

"Feng Qing has been tall, thin, and pretty skinny since he was a child, and this is probably because he has never had a (good) appetite."

脾气 píqì "nature, character"
Expresses someone's nature, personality, or propensity.
(3)

3SG

cóng

from

xiǎo

young

jiù

already

shì

COP

one

CL

tiān

heaven

NEG

fear

earth

NEG

fear

de

PART

脾气

píqi

nature

他 从 小 就 是 一 副 天 不 怕 地 不 怕 的 脾气

Tā cóng xiǎo jiù shì yí fù tiān bú pà dì bú pà de píqi

3SG from young already COP one CL heaven NEG fear earth NEG fear PART nature

"He has been afraid of nothing (lit. neither heaven nor earth) since he was a child."

德行 déxing "bad attitude"
Expresses the consequence of someone's poor attitude or behavior.
(4)

3SG

cóng

from

xiǎo

young

jiù

already

shì

COP

one

CL

姥姥

lǎolao

grandmother

NEG

qīn

kiss

舅舅

jiùjiu

uncle

NEG

ài

love

de

PART

德行

déxing

bad.attitude

他 从 小 就 是 一 副 姥姥 不 亲 舅舅 不 爱 的 德行

Tā cóng xiǎo jiù shì yí fù lǎolao bù qīn jiùjiu bú ài de déxing

3SG from young already COP one CL grandmother NEG kiss uncle NEG love PART bad.attitude

"He has a bad attitude such that his grandmother has not kissed him and his uncle has not loved him since he was a child."

架势 jiàshi "posture, arrogance"
Expresses the extent of someone's arrogance.
(5)

3SG

现在

xiànzài

now

完全

wánquán

completely

shì

COP

one

CL

yào

will

CAUS

皇帝

huángdì

emperor

拉下

lā-xià

pull-down

horse

de

PART

架势

jiàshi

arrogant.manner

他 现在 完全 是 一 副 要 把 皇帝 拉下 马 的 架势

Tā xiànzài wánquán shì yí fù yào bǎ huángdì lā-xià mǎ de jiàshi

3SG now completely COP one CL will CAUS emperor pull-down horse PART arrogant.manner

"Now, he is totally arrogant enough to attempt to topple the emperor."

Austronesian languages

[edit]

In addition to in Tagalog (described below), mermaid constructions have been found in the Oceanic Neku language and the Philippine Kapampangan language.

Tagalog

[edit]

Tagalog is a Philippine language within the Austronesian language family. Mermaid constructions in Tagalog differ from the Japanese-based prototype in that Tagalog's word order is verb–subject–object, not subject–object–verb, and Tagalog is a zero copula langauge. As a result, its mermaid clauses take the form of noun + clause, with a linking morpheme attached to the noun.

There is only one type of mermaid construction in Tagalog that is used used with a finite clause in the clause slot, which uses the noun mukha "face."

(1)
Mukhang binatapasiya.

mukha-ng

face-LK

binata=pa=siya

bachelor=yet=3SG:TOP

mukha-ng binata=pa=siya

face-LK bachelor=yet=3SG:TOP

"It seems he is still a bachelor."

(2)
Mukhang sasabogna ang bulkan.

mukha-ng

face-LK

sa-sabog=na

AF:CONT-erupt=already

ang

TOP

bulkan

volcano

mukha-ng sa-sabog=na ang bulkan

face-LK AF:CONT-erupt=already TOP volcano

"It seems the volcano will erupt soon."

There are five types of quasi-mermaid constructions that can be made with infinitive verbs in the clause slot:

  • plano "plan"
(1)
Planong bumisita ni Noya sa Davao bukas.

plano-ng

plan-LK

b-um-isita

AF:INF-visit

ni

GEN

Noya

Noy

sa

OBL

Davao

Davao

bukas

tomorrow

plano-ng b-um-isita ni Noya sa Davao bukas

plan-LK AF:INF-visit GEN Noy OBL Davao tomorrow

"Noy plans to visit Davao tomorrow."

  • tradisyon "tradition"
(1)
Tradisyong ipagdiwang nang manga Filipino ang Easter.

tradisyon-g

tradition-LK

ipag-diwang

PF:INF-celebrate

nang

GEN

manga

PL

Filipino

Filipino

ang

TOP

Easter

Easter

tradisyon-g ipag-diwang nang manga Filipino ang Easter

tradition-LK PF:INF-celebrate GEN PL Filipino TOP Easter

"Filipinos have the practice of celebrating Easter."

  • kapalaran "fate"
(1)
Kapalarang matalo ni Erap noong eleksyon.

kapalaran-g

fate-LK

ma-talo

AF:INF-lose

ni

GEN

Erap

Erap

noon-g

last-LK

eleksyon

election

kapalaran-g ma-talo ni Erap noon-g eleksyon

fate-LK AF:INF-lose GEN Erap last-LK election

"Erap was destined to lose in the last election."

  • balak "plan"
  • destino "destiny"

Korean

[edit]

More than 70 different nouns can be used for mermaid constructions in Korean. The copula slot can be filled by the copula 이다 ida or by one of its variants depending on context. Some examples are:

Grammaticalized Noun Etymological Meaning Function Example
예정 yeyceng prediction, expectation intention, planning

친구는

chinkwu=nun

friend=TOP

일본에

ilpon=ey

Japan=DAT/LOC

ka-l

go-ADN.PROS

예정이다

yeyceng=i-ta

plan=COP-DECL

친구는 일본에 갈 예정이다

chinkwu=nun ilpon=ey ka-l yeyceng=i-ta

friend=TOP Japan=DAT/LOC go-ADN.PROS plan=COP-DECL

"(My) friend plans to go to Japan."

모양 moyang appearance, condition sensory evidential

밖에는

pakk=ey=nun

outside=DAT/LOC=TOP

비가

pi=ka

rain=NOM

오는

o-nun

fall-ADN.NPST

모양이다

moyang=i-ta

appearance=COP-DECL

밖에는 비가 오는 모양이다

pakk=ey=nun pi=ka o-nun moyang=i-ta

outside=DAT/LOC=TOP rain=NOM fall-ADN.NPST appearance=COP-DECL

"It appears to be raining outside."

kil road, path, means progressive aspect

나는

na=nun

me=TOP

은행에

unhayng=ey

bank=DAT/LOC

가는

ka-nun

go-ADN.NPST

길이

kil=i-ta

road=COP-DECL

나는 은행에 가는 길이

na=nun unhayng=ey ka-nun kil=i-ta

me=TOP bank=DAT/LOC go-ADN.NPST road=COP-DECL

"I am on my way to the bank."

Ainu

[edit]

Ainu has ten nouns that are usable in mermaid constructions, all of which are used with the equative copula ne:

Grammaticalized Noun Etymological Meaning Function Example
ruwe the trace of inferential, or modal marker of certainty *

タネ

tane

already

アィヌ

aynu

ainu

コタン

kotan

village

ハンケ

hanke

be.close

ルヱ

ru-w-e

trace-EP-POSS

ネ。

ne

COP

タネ アィヌ コタン ハンケ ルヱ ネ。

tane aynu kotan hanke ru-w-e ne

already ainu village be.close trace-EP-POSS COP

"I infer that an Ainu village is already nearby."
Lit. "It is the trace (that an) Ainu village is already close."

hawe the voice of reportative *

ピㇼカ

pirka

be.good

ウエペケㇾ

uepeker

folktale

ne

COP

ハヱ

haw-e

voice-POSS

ne

COP

ワ。

wa

FIN

ピㇼカ ウエペケㇾ ネ ハヱ ネ ワ。

pirka uepeker ne haw-e ne wa

be.good folktale COP voice-POSS COP FIN

"It is said to be / Based on what you said, I assume that it is a good folktale."
Lit. "It is the voice (that) the folktale is good."

siri the sight of visual *

アコㇿ

a=kor

IND.A=have

フチ

huci

grandmother

アコㇿ

a=kor

IND.A=have

エカシ

ekasi

grandfather

アイメッカㇻ

a=imekkar

IND.A=give.presents.to

シリ

sir-i

sight-POSS

ネ。

ne

COP

アコㇿ フチ アコㇿ エカシ アイメッカㇻ シリ ネ。

a=kor huci a=kor ekasi a=imekkar sir-i ne

IND.A=have grandmother IND.A=have grandfather IND.A=give.presents.to sight-POSS COP

"Grandmother, grandfather, look, this is for you."
Lit. "It is the sight (that) I am giving presents to my grandmother and grandfather."

humi the sound of non-visual sensory *

アツ゚イェサㇳサチ

atuyesatsaci

shallow.stream

ta

LOC

ラヤン

ray=an

die.SG=IND.S

フミ

hum-i

sound-POSS

ネ。

ne

COP

アツ゚イェサㇳサチ タ ラヤン フミ ネ。

atuyesatsaci ta ray=an hum-i ne

shallow.stream LOC die.SG=IND.S sound-POSS COP

"I felt that I was going to die in the shallow stream."
Lit. "It was the feeling (that) I was going to die in the shallow stream."

kusu the reason of intentional *

アウㇰ

a=uk

IND.A=take.SG

wa

and

アエ

a=e

IND.A=eat

クス

kus-u

reason-POSS

ネ。

ne

COP

アウㇰ ワ アエ クス ネ。

a=uk wa a=e kus-u ne

IND.A=take.SG and IND.A=eat reason-POSS COP

"(If you offer some hard wine lees), I will accept that and eat."
Lit. "It is the reason/intention (that) I will accept that and eat."

kunip should deontic *

エチキ

eci=ki

2PL.A=do

クニㇷ゚

kun-i-p

obligation?-POSS-thing/person

ne

COP

ナ。

na

FIN

エチキ クニㇷ゚ ネ ナ。

eci=ki kun-i-p ne na

2PL.A=do obligation?-POSS-thing/person COP FIN

"You should do (this)."
Lit. "It is the obligation (that) you (will) do this."

pe ~ p thing, person assertive, pragmatic imperative *

ヌプリ

nupuri

mountain

ケㇱ

kes

end

ウン

un

attach.to

プリ

puri

habit

ヱン

wen

be.bad

クㇽ

kur

person

アネㇷ゚

a=ne-p

IND.A=COP-thing/person

ne

COP

クス…

kusu

because

ヌプリ ケㇱ ウン プリ ヱン クㇽ アネㇷ゚ ネ クス…

nupuri kes un puri wen kur a=ne-p ne kusu

mountain end attach.to habit be.bad person IND.A=COP-thing/person COP because

"Because I am surely the demon from the end of the mountains..."
Lit. "It is the thing/fact (that) I am the habitually bad person (who) belongs to the end of the mountains."

katu the shape/manner of assertive *

アカㇻ

a=kar

IND.A=make

アィネ

ayne

finally

アィヌ

aynu

human

ウワㇱテ

u-w-as-te

RECP-EP-stand.SG-CAUS

カツ゚

kat-u

shape/reason-POSS

ネ。

ne

COP

アカㇻ アィネ アィヌ ウワㇱテ カツ゚ ネ。

a=kar ayne aynu u-w-as-te kat-u ne

IND.A=make finally human RECP-EP-stand.SG-CAUS shape/reason-POSS COP

"(The gods) made (this and that) so finally humans reproduced (and became so numerous)."
Lit. "It is the shape (that) humans grew in number."

hi place, time, thing assertive *

カムィ

kamuy

gods

テンカィネ

tenkayne

thanks

エパ

e=pa

2SG.A=find

wa

and

エシㇰヌレ

e=siknu-re

2SG.A=be.alive-CAUS

hi

place/time/thing

ne

COP

アーン。

aan

ADM

カムィ テンカィネ エパ ワ エシㇰヌレ ネ アーン。

kamuy tenkayne e=pa wa e=siknu-re hi ne aan

gods thanks 2SG.A=find and 2SG.A=be.alive-CAUS place/time/thing COP ADM

"You must have found (that girl) with the help of the gods and revived her!"
Lit. "It is the thing (that) you found (that girl) with the help of the gods and revived her."

uske the place of progressive *

タネ

tane

already

イペアン

ipe=an

eat=IND.S

ウㇱケ

us-ke

place-POSS

ネ。

ne

COP

タネ イペアン ウㇱケ ネ。

tane ipe=an us-ke ne

already eat=IND.S place-POSS COP

"I'm eating right now."
Lit. "It is the place (that) I am eating now."

The noun kunip is so strongly grammaticalized that it does not appear outside of mermaid constructions.

Evidential-type nouns, namely ruwe, hawe, siri, and humi, have also been attested in quasi-mermaid constructions with the verbs an "to exist," isam "to not exist," and as "to stand" instead of the copular verb ne.

Thai

[edit]

Thai is a Tai language within the Kra–Dai language family. Thai has structures similar to a mermaid construction, considered "quasi-mermaid constructions." There are three types within Thai, which are only used with verbs denoting psychological or speech actions.

  1. (target + ) copula + nominalizer + psych. verb ( + oblique + experiencer)
  2. (target + ) copula + nominalizer + speech verb ( + oblique + speaker)
  3. copula + nominalizer + psych./speech verb + complement clause

To elaborate:

  • The target identifies the target, goal, etc. of the psychological or speech act.
  • A psych. verb is a verb denoting a psychological act such as "worry," "love," "want," "believe in," etc.
  • A speech verb is a verb denoting a speech act such as "say," "mention," "criticize," "rumor," etc.
  • An oblique is an adjunct prepositional phrase.
  • The experiencer and speaker are the agents of the psychological or speech acts.
  • The complement clause is the quotative complementizer wâa plus a clause.
  • The nominalizer, equivalent to the noun slot of a prototypical mermaid construction, can be occupied by the noun thîi "place, entity" or kaan "activity, matter."
(1)

X

phûu ráp cháy

employee

X

thîi

REL

X

thɯ̌ɯ

hold

X

khwaam sɯ̂ɯ troŋ

loyalty

X

pen

COP

X

thîi

NMLZ

X

ʔùn cay

feel.relieved

X

khɔ̌ɔŋ

GEN

X

hǔa nâa

boss

X X X X X X X X X

{phûu ráp cháy} thîi thɯ̌ɯ {khwaam sɯ̂ɯ troŋ} pen thîi {ʔùn cay} khɔ̌ɔŋ {hǔa nâa}

employee REL hold loyalty COP NMLZ feel.relieved GEN boss

"Employees with loyalty are a relief to the bosses."

(2)

X

phalìttaphan

product

X

làw níi

these

X

pen

COP

X

thîi

NMLZ

X

klàaw khwǎn

criticize

X

thɯ̌ŋ

reach

X

yàaŋ mâak

very.much

X X X X X X X

phalìttaphan {làw níi} pen thîi {klàaw khwǎn} thɯ̌ŋ {yàaŋ mâak}

product these COP NMLZ criticize reach very.much

"These products are criticized very much."

(3)

X

pen

COP

X

thîi

NMLZ

X

yɔɔm ráp

admit

X

kan

RECP

X

thûa

be.overall

X

pay

go

X

wâa

COMP

X

wannakam

literary.work

X

lɛ́ʔ

and

X

phâaphayon

movie

X

mii

have

X

ʔìtthíphon

influence

X

tɔ̀ɔ

upon

X

kan lɛ́ʔ kan

each.other

X

yàaŋ mâak

very.much

X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

pen thîi {yɔɔm ráp} kan thûa pay wâa wannakam lɛ́ʔ phâaphayon mii ʔìtthíphon tɔ̀ɔ {kan lɛ́ʔ kan} {yàaŋ mâak}

COP NMLZ admit RECP be.overall go COMP literary.work and movie have influence upon each.other very.much

"It is generally admitted that literary works and movies influence each other very much."

Mongolian (Khalkha)

[edit]

Khalkha Mongolian is the predominant variety of the Mongolian language within Mongolia. It has only one type of mermaid construction:

xereg "occurrence, fact, circumstance, necessity"
Adds a tone of explanation like English "I mean that ..." or inquiring an explanation like "Do you mean that ...?" in a question).
(1)

Визээр

viz-eer

visa-INS

бизнес

biznjes

business.NOM

хийгчид

xijgč-i-d

doer-EP-PL.NOM

чухам

čuxam

actually

хаана

xaana

where

орогнодог

orogno-dog

flee-VN.HAB

хэрэг

xereg

occurrence

вэ.

ve

Q

Визээр бизнес хийгчид чухам хаана орогнодог хэрэг вэ.

viz-eer biznjes xijgč-i-d čuxam xaana orogno-dog xereg ve

visa-INS business.NOM doer-EP-PL.NOM actually where flee-VN.HAB occurrence Q

"Where on earth do (illegal) visa dealers flee to?"

(2)

Эндээс

end-ees

here-ABL

аваачсан

avaač-san

take-VN.PST

хэрэг

xereg

occurrence

үү?

üü

Q

Эндээс аваачсан хэрэг үү?

end-ees avaač-san xereg üü

here-ABL take-VN.PST occurrence Q

"Did they take (it) from here?"

(3)

Гадаадад

gadaad-a-d

foreign.country-EP-DAT

хаанач

xaana=č

where=even.FOC

билээ

bilee,

MP

хуралтай

xuraltaj

with.meeting

байсан

baj-san

be-VN.PST

хэрэг.

xereg

occurrence

Гадаадад хаанач билээ хуралтай байсан хэрэг.

gadaad-a-d xaana=č bilee, xuraltaj baj-san xereg

foreign.country-EP-DAT where=even.FOC MP with.meeting be-VN.PST occurrence

"He was going to have a meeting in a foreign country; I cannot remember which."

Khalkha Mongolian also has two types of quasi-mermaid constructions:

(gesen) üg and (gedeg) üg
Elaborates on the meaning or significance of something, like English "This means that..." This is not a true mermaid construction because the noun üg is coreferential with the subject of the clause, e.g. enen’ "this" in example 4 below:
(4)

(Энэнь)

(ene=n’)

(this.NOM=3.POSS)

амьнаснь

am’+nas=n’

live.NOM=3.POSS

аюулгүй

ajuulgüj

safe

байнал

bajna=l

be-TV.NPST=only.FOC

гэсэн

ge-sen

say-VN.HAB

үг.

üg

word

(Энэнь) амьнаснь аюулгүй байнал гэсэн үг.

(ene=n’) am’+nas=n’ ajuulgüj bajna=l ge-sen üg

(this.NOM=3.POSS) live.NOM=3.POSS safe be-TV.NPST=only.FOC say-VN.HAB word

"(This) only means that their lives are safe."

-taj ~ -toj ~ -tej
A proprietive adjective-deriving suffix that attaches to a noun. This is not a true mermaid construction because the noun slot is filled by an adjective, not a noun.
(5)

Би

bi

1SG.NOM

маргааш

margaaš

tomorrow

хөдөө

xödöö

countryside

явах

jav-a-x

go-EP-VN.NPST

төлөвлөгөөтэй

tölövlögöö-tej

plan-PROP

байна.

baj-na

be-TV.NPST

Би маргааш хөдөө явах төлөвлөгөөтэй байна.

bi margaaš xödöö jav-a-x tölövlögöö-tej baj-na

1SG.NOM tomorrow countryside go-EP-VN.NPST plan-PROP be-TV.NPST

"I am planning to go to the countryside tomorrow."

(6)

Монголчууд

mongol-čuud

Mongolian-PL.NOM

өвөгдээдсээ

övög+deeds-ee

ancestors-REFL

хүндэлдэг

xündel-deg

respect-VN.HAB

заншилтай.

zanšil-taj

custom-PROP

Монголчууд өвөгдээдсээ хүндэлдэг заншилтай.

mongol-čuud övög+deeds-ee xündel-deg zanšil-taj

Mongolian-PL.NOM ancestors-REFL respect-VN.HAB custom-PROP

"Mongolians have the custom of ancestor worship."

Yakut

[edit]

Yakut or Sakha is a Siberian Turkic language within the Turkic language family. Yakut has 28 nouns that can be used in quasi-mermaid constructions. They are considered not to be true mermaid constructions because the clause must be non-finite, and the noun is required to take a proprietive suffix meaning "having," essentially filling the noun slot by an adjective. For example:

(1)

Мин

min

1SG

Токиоҕа

tokio-ʁa

Tokyo-DAT

барар

bar-ar

go-VN.PRS

былааннаахпын.

bɯlaan-naax-pɯn

plan-PROP-COP.1SG

Мин Токиоҕа барар былааннаахпын.

min tokio-ʁa bar-ar bɯlaan-naax-pɯn

1SG Tokyo-DAT go-VN.PRS plan-PROP-COP.1SG

"I plan to go to Tokyo."

(2)

Үлэтэ суох

ylete suox

without.work

хаалар

xaal-ar

remain-VN.PRS

кэскиллээхтэр.

keskil-leex-ter

future-PROP-COP.3PL

{Үлэтэ суох} хаалар кэскиллээхтэр.

{ylete suox} xaal-ar keskil-leex-ter

without.work remain-VN.PRS future-PROP-COP.3PL

"They will still be unemployed."

(3)

Дьолломмут

žollom-mut

feel.happy-VN.PST

дьүһүннээххин.

žyhyn-neex-xin

shape-PROP-COP.2SG

Дьолломмут дьүһүннээххин.

žollom-mut žyhyn-neex-xin

feel.happy-VN.PST shape-PROP-COP.2SG

"You look happy."

Kurukh

[edit]

Kurukh or Oraon is a language within the Dravidian language family. It has two clitics and one noun that can occupy the noun slot in its mermaid constructions.

(1)

इ:

this

रे:ल्ग:ड़ि

reːlgaːɽiː

train

को:डर्म​:

koːɖarmaː

Koderma

क​:लु:मधेद्

kaːl-uː=madʰe(-d)

go-PRS.VADJ=ADJ-NM

हिके।

hike

COP.PRS.3SG.NM

इ: रे:ल्ग:ड़ि को:डर्म​: क​:लु:मधेद् हिके।

iː reːlgaːɽiː koːɖarmaː kaːl-uː=madʰe(-d) hike

this train Koderma go-PRS.VADJ=ADJ-NM COP.PRS.3SG.NM

"This train is scheduled to go to Koderma."

(2)

अ:स्

aːs

3SG.M.NOM

चिं:ख़न​:बेसे:

cĩːx-naː=beseː

cry-VBN=like

रह्चस्।

rahc-as

be.B2-PST.3SG.M

अ:स् चिं:ख़न​:बेसे: रह्चस्।

aːs cĩːx-naː=beseː rahc-as

3SG.M.NOM cry-VBN=like be.B2-PST.3SG.M

"It was as if he would cry," or "He was about to cry."

(3)

अ:स्

aːs

3SG.M.NOM

तम्बसिन्

tamba-s-in

own.father-M-ACC

इल्च्क​:

ilc-kaː

fear.B2-PST.VADJ

चड्डे:

caɖɖeː

because

बोङगस्

boŋg-as

run.away-PST.3SG.M

केरस्।

ker-as

go.B2-PST.3SG.M

अ:स् तम्बसिन् इल्च्क​: चड्डे: बोङगस् केरस्।

aːs tamba-s-in ilc-kaː caɖɖeː boŋg-as ker-as

3SG.M.NOM own.father-M-ACC fear.B2-PST.VADJ because run.away-PST.3SG.M go.B2-PST.3SG.M

"He ran away because he was scared of his father."

Sidaama

[edit]

Sidaama is a Highland East Cushitic language within the Afroasiatic language family, and the first language outside of Asia to be described as having a mermaid construction. It has three types of mermaid constructions:

ɡara "manner, way"
Expresses evidentiality such as seeming or appearing.
(1)

X

ise

3SG.F.NOM

X

dod-d-anno

run-3SG.F-IPFV.3

X

ɡara-a=ti

manner-LV=NPC.PRED.MOD

X X X

ise dod-d-anno ɡara-a=ti

3SG.F.NOM run-3SG.F-IPFV.3 manner-LV=NPC.PRED.MOD

"It seems like she (habitually) runs."

=ɡede "like, as if, so that"
Expresses evidentiality such as seeming or appearing.
(1)

X

ise

3SG.F.NOM

X

dod-d-anno=ɡede-e=ti

run-3SG.F-IPFV.3=like-LV=NPC.PRED.MOD

X X

ise dod-d-anno=ɡede-e=ti

3SG.F.NOM run-3SG.F-IPFV.3=like-LV=NPC.PRED.MOD

"It seems like she will run."

dative-locative suffix -ra
Expresses that an action is or was about to occur.
(1)

X

ise

3SG.F.NOM

X

dod-d-a-ra-a=ti

run-3SG.F-INF-DATLOC.MOD-LV=NPC.PRED.MOD

X X

ise dod-d-a-ra-a=ti

3SG.F.NOM run-3SG.F-INF-DATLOC.MOD-LV=NPC.PRED.MOD

"She is about to run."

Kolyma Yukaghir

[edit]

Kolyma Yukaghir is one of the two extant Yukaghir languages. Kolyma Yukaghir has two varieties of mermaid construction that deviate from the Japanese prototype:

  1. The noun slot is occupied by an enclitic =ben ~ =bed, and the verb of the clause is in a non-finite participle form. This type of mermaid construction usually describes past (uncommonly, present) actions and also has a modal meaning of assertion.
  2. The noun slot is occupied by a nominalizing suffix -joːn ~ -joːd ~ -d’oːn ~ -d’oːd ~ -t’oːn ~ -t’oːd, and the verb of the clause is in its stem form. This type of mermaid construction also describes past actions, but does not have a modal meaning.

The copula slot can generally be filled by the focus marker -(e)k for either type, or by the copular verb "to be" for type 2.

(1a)

Тудэл

tudel

3SG

тудаа

tudaː

before

миидьиилэ

miːd’iː-le

sledge-INS

хонрошмэлэбэдэк.

xonroʃ-mele=bed-ek

break-PTCP.3SG=bed-FOC

Тудэл тудаа миидьиилэ хонрошмэлэбэдэк.

tudel tudaː miːd’iː-le xonroʃ-mele=bed-ek

3SG before sledge-INS break-PTCP.3SG=bed-FOC

"He broke a sledge before."

(1b)

Мэт

met

1SG

төвкэ

töwke

dog

йуомэбэдэк.

juo-me=bed-ek

see-PTCP.1SG=bed-FOC

Мэт төвкэ йуомэбэдэк.

met töwke juo-me=bed-ek

1SG dog see-PTCP.1SG=bed-FOC

"I saw a dog."

(2a)

Тэт

tet

2SG

тудаа

tudaː

before

хондьоон

xon-d’oːn

go-d’oːn

оодьэк.

oː-d’ek

be-INTR.2SG

Тэт тудаа хондьоон оодьэк.

tet tudaː xon-d’oːn oː-d’ek

2SG before go-d’oːn be-INTR.2SG

"You went (there) before."

(2b)

Титтэл

tittel

3PL

киэтьоонпэк.

kie-t’oːn-pe-k

come-t’oːn-PL-FOC

Титтэл киэтьоонпэк.

tittel kie-t’oːn-pe-k

3PL come-t’oːn-PL-FOC

"They came."

Hindi

[edit]

Hindi is an Indo-Aryan language of the Indo-European language family. Hindi has one mermaid construction, where the noun slot is filled by the enclitic =vālā "one who ~s," and the verb of the clause is in the non-finite infinitive form. This mermaid construction can indicate:

  1. Aspectual meaning, expressing that an action is about to occur.
  2. Deontic modal meaning, expressing an intended or scheduled action.
  3. Epistemic modal meaning, expressing the speaker's belief about the occurrence of an action.
(1)

मैं

mãĩ

1SG

यूनिवर्सिटी

yūnivarsiṭī

university.F.SG

जानेवाला

jā-ne=vālā

go-INF.OBL=vālā.M.SG

हूँ।

hū̃

COP.PRS.1SG

मैं यूनिवर्सिटी जानेवाला हूँ।

mãĩ yūnivarsiṭī jā-ne=vālā hū̃

1SG university.F.SG go-INF.OBL=vālā.M.SG COP.PRS.1SG

"I am about to go to the university," or "I am on my way to the university."

(2)

वह

vah

3SG

आज

āj

today

कल

kal

tomorrow

मरनेवाला

mar-ne=vālā

die-INF.OBL=vālā.M.SG

है।

hai

COP.PRS.3SG

वह आज कल मरनेवाला है।

vah āj kal mar-ne=vālā hai

3SG today tomorrow die-INF.OBL=vālā.M.SG COP.PRS.3SG

"He will die in a day or so."

Hindi -vālā "one who ~s" is thought to derive from Sanskrit पाल pāla or पालक pālaka, both meaning "guardian, protector, maintainer."

Koryak

[edit]

Koryak is a Chukotkan language within the Chukotko-Kamchatkan language family; this section specifically deals with the Chawchəvan dialect. Koryak has one quasi-mermaid construction, where the noun slot is filled by the nominalizing suffix -jolqəl, and the verb of the clause is in its stem form.

Koryak does not have a copula, instead marking subject complements (in this case, -jolqəl) by personal pronoun suffixes. For quasi-mermaid construction, this suffix follows ergative–absolutive alignment: it agrees with the intransitive subject or transitive object of the clause.

The nominalizing suffix -jolqəl expresses a deontic modal meaning of obligation:

(1)

(Гыцци)

(ɣəcci)

(2SG.ABS)

эцги

ecɣi

today

вайолӄылэгэ

va-jolqəl-eɣe

stay-should-2SG.S

гэньпицитэ

ɣ-eɲpici-te

COM-father-COM

йайак.

jaja-k

house-LOC

(Гыцци) эцги вайолӄылэгэ гэньпицитэ йайак.

(ɣəcci) ecɣi va-jolqəl-eɣe ɣ-eɲpici-te jaja-k

(2SG.ABS) today stay-should-2SG.S COM-father-COM house-LOC

"You should stay at home with your father today."

(2)

(Ыццу)

(əccu)

(3PL.ABS)

ав’йэйолӄыло

awje-jolqəl-o

eat-should-3PL.S

ав’йэйак.

awje-ja-k

eat-house-LOC

(Ыццу) ав’йэйолӄыло ав’йэйак.

(əccu) awje-jolqəl-o awje-ja-k

(3PL.ABS) eat-should-3PL.S eat-house-LOC

"They should eat at the buffet."

(3)

(Гымнан)

(ɣəmnan)

(1SG.ERG)

инг’э

inʕe

soon

г’айӈав’йолӄыл

ʕajŋaw-jolqəl-∅

call-should-3SG.O

ӄайыкмиӈын.

qajəkmiŋ-ə-n

boy-EP-ABS.SG

(Гымнан) инг’э г’айӈав’йолӄыл ӄайыкмиӈын.

(ɣəmnan) inʕe ʕajŋaw-jolqəl-∅ qajəkmiŋ-ə-n

(1SG.ERG) soon call-should-3SG.O boy-EP-ABS.SG

"I should call the boy soon."

(4)

(Митив’)

mitiw

tomorrow

гынан

(ɣənan)

(2SG.ERG)

ӈэлвылг’ыӈӄо

ŋelvəlʕ-ə-ŋqo

reindeer.herd-EP-ABL

йылэйолӄыл

jəle-jolqəl-∅

bring-should-3SG.O

тымйон.

təm-jo-n

kill-NMLZ-ABS.SG

(Митив’) гынан ӈэлвылг’ыӈӄо йылэйолӄыл тымйон.

mitiw (ɣənan) ŋelvəlʕ-ə-ŋqo jəle-jolqəl-∅ təm-jo-n

tomorrow (2SG.ERG) reindeer.herd-EP-ABL bring-should-3SG.O kill-NMLZ-ABS.SG

"You should bring the killed (reindeer) from the herd tomorrow."

Xibe

[edit]

Xibe or Sive is a language within the Tungusic language family, and a close relative of Manchu language. Xibe has at least two different mermaid constructions, which are used with a zero copula:

aliŋe "like"
Expresses likeness or seeming.
(1)

X

merxenje da

Merxenje

X

ji-xe

come-PRF.ADN

X.

aliŋe.

like.

X

kicebu da

Kicebu

X

ji-xe

come-PRF.ADN

X

aqu

NEG

X.

aliŋe.

like.

X X X. X X X X.

{merxenje da} ji-xe aliŋe. {kicebu da} ji-xe aqu aliŋe.

Merxenje come-PRF.ADN like. Kicebu come-PRF.ADN NEG like.

"It seems that Merxenje came, (but) it seems that Kicebu didn't come."

nominalizer =ŋe
Expresses discourse-relative functions such as assertion.
(2)

X

si

2SG

X

zuŋgo

China

X

nane

person

X?

na

yes.no.Q

/

/

/

X.

waqe.

not.

X

bi

1SG

X

zibeN=deri’

Japan=ABL

X.

ji-xe=ŋe

come-PRF.ADN=NMLZ

X X X X? / X. X X X.

si zuŋgo nane na / waqe. bi zibeN=deri’ ji-xe=ŋe

2SG China person yes.no.Q / not. 1SG Japan=ABL come-PRF.ADN=NMLZ

"Are you Chinese? / No, I came from Japan."

(3)

X

si

2SG

X

ai

what

X?

are-maχe=ŋe

do-PROG.ADN=NMLZ

/

/

/

X

bitke’

book

X.

ta-maχe=ŋe

read-PROG.ADN=NMLZ

X X X? / X X.

si ai are-maχe=ŋe / bitke’ ta-maχe=ŋe

2SG what do-PROG.ADN=NMLZ / book read-PROG.ADN=NMLZ

"What are you doing? / I'm reading a book."

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Tsunoda (2013), pp. 1–2.

Works Cited

[edit]
  • Kaneda Akihiro [in Japanese] (2001), 八丈方言動詞の基礎研究 (Basic Research on Verbs in the Hachijō Dialect), 笠間書院 (Kasama Shoin Co., Ltd.).
  • Tsunoda Tasaku, ed. (2013), Adnominal Clauses and the ‘Mermaid Construction’: Grammaticalization of Nouns, doi:10.1515/9783110670844, ISBN 9783110670806.

FIN:sentence-final particle IND:indeterminate person EP:epenthetic sound EMPH:emphasis ADM:admirative PROS:prospective NPST:non-past PST:past THM:thematic vowel COPA:copula, pattern A (Tibetan) COPB:copula, pattern B (Tibetan) MED:medial (tenseless, adverbial) RSL:resultative IPF:imperfect IPFV:imperfective TENT:tentative-conjectural CONCL:sentence-conclusive form INW:inward directional prefix (Amdo Tibetan) RT:remote time (Amdo Tibetan) ADN:adnominal form/adnominalizer REL:relativizer/relativized RECP:reciprocal COMP:complementizer/complementized NMLZ:nominalizer/nominalized KO:case particle for patient, recipient, goal, etc. PART:particle CL:classifier FD:future disjunct (Newar) NFND:nonfuture neutral disjunct (Newar) NFPD:nonfuture perfective disjunct (Newar) CM:concatenation marker (Newar) NM:non-masculine gender (Kurukh) B2:base 2 (Kurukh) VADJ:verbal adjective (Kurukh) VBN:verbal noun (Kurukh) DATLOC:dative-locative suffix (Sidaama) NPC:noun-phrase enclitic (Sidaama) MOD:modified (accompanied by a modifier, etc.) (Sidaama) PRED:predicative noun-phrase enclitic (Sidaama) OBL:oblique AF:agent focus (Tagalog) PF:patient focus (Tagalog) EXCL:exclamatory form (Old and Middle Japanese) TV:terminating verbal (Mongolian) MP:modal particle (Mongolian) LV:lengthened vowel PROP:proprietive