User:Modus Vivendi/Arabic Alphabet English
The Arabic alphabet is the principal script used for writing the Arabic language.
Though often designated an "alphabet", just as with writing systems of other Semitic languages, the writing system for Arabic is in fact an abjad[1], a term denoting a writing system which writes (primarily) consonants and a minimal number of other sounds (mostly long vowels).
As the alphabet of the language of the Qur'an', holy amoung [[Muslim|Muslims], the influence of the Arabic alphabet has spread throughout the Islamic world, and it has been used for writing many other languages with no common heritage with Arabic (sometimes alongside another writing systems, othertimes by extending the alphabet with non-Arabic letters), such as
None of these languages are in the same languge family, and apart from Turkish, all the languages in the preceding list are Indo-European, making them more closely related to English than Arabic, although Persian and Urdu have many Arabic loan-words.
It was often necessary to add new letters or modify the meanings of existing letters to adapt this alphabet to the phonological system of the languages in question. Certain African languages, such as Hausa also used the Arabic alphabet in the past before adopting a latin script later[3]
The Arabic alphabet is composed of 29 basic letters and is written from right to left. There is no difference between written and printed letters; the concepts of upper and lower case letters do not exist (thus the writing is unicase). On the other hand, most of the letters are attached to one another, even when printed, and their appearance changes as a function of whether they are preceded or followed by other letters or stand alone (that is, there is contextual variation). The Arabic alphabet is an abjad[1], a term describing writing in which the vowels are not explicitly written; so the reader must know the language in order to restore them. However, in editions of the Qur'an or in didactic works a vocalization notation in the form of diacritic marks is used. Moreover, in vocalized texts, there is a series of other diacritics of which the most modern are an indication of vowel omission (sukūn) and the doubling of consonants (šadda).
This alphabet can be traced back to the Nabataean version of the Aramaic alphabet, itself descended from the Phoenecian[4]. The first example of a text in the Arabic alphabet appeared in 512 A.D. In the 7th century, marks were added above and below the letters to differentiate them, as Aramaic had fewer phonemes than Arabic. Thus, in the early writings a single letter might represent several phonemes.
The Arabic alphabet can be transliterated and transcribed in various ways. The preferred method in this document will be DIN-31635. It can be encoded using several character sets, including: ISO-8859-6 and Unicode, thanks to the "Arabic segment", entries U+0600 to U+06FF. However, these two sets do not indicate for each of the characters the in-context form they should take. It is left to the rendering engine to select the proper glyph to display for each character.
When one wants to encode a particular written form of a character, there are extra code points provided in Unicode which can be used to express the exact written form desired. The Arabic presentation forms A (U+FB50 to U+FDFF) and Arabic presentation forms B (U+FE70 to U+FEFF) contain most of the characters with contextual variation as well as the extended characters appropriate for other languages. It is also possible to use zero-width joiners and non-joiners. Note that the use of these presentation forms is deprecated in Unicode, and should generally only be used within the internals of text-rendering software, or for backwards compatibility with implementations that rely on the hard-coding of glyph forms.
Finally, the Unicode encoding of Arabic is in logical order, that is, the characters are entered, and stored in computer memory, in the order that they are written and pronounced without worrying about the direction in which they will be displayed on paper or on the screen. Again, it is left to the rendering engine to present the characters in the correct direction. In this regard, if the Arabic words on this page are written left to right, it is an indication that the Unicode rendering engine used to display them is out-of-date. For more information about encoding Arabic, consult the Unicode manual available at http://www.unicode.org/
Presentation of the alphabet[edit]
The transcription and the transliteration mainly follow the DIN 31635 standard; the alternatives belonging to other standards are indicated after the oblique bar.
Notice that the superscript diacritic above the vowels can be easily replaced by a circumflex.
A transliteration from Arabic must clearly show the characters which are not pronounced or which are pronounced as others in order to avoid being ambiguous; a transcription indicates only the pronunciation. See below for more details. The phonetic transcription (somewhat simplified here) follows the conventions of the International Phonetic Alphabet: for more details concerning the pronunciation of Arabic, consult the article on Arabic pronunciation.
Primary letters[edit]
| Stand-alone | Initial | Medial | Final | Name | Trans. | Value |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ﺀ | أ ؤ إ ئ ٵ ٶ ٸ ځ, etc. | hamza | ʾ / ’ et ‚ | [ʔ] | ||
| ﺍ | — | ﺎ | ʾalif | ā / â | [aː] | |
| ﺏ | ﺑ | ﺒ | ﺐ | bāʾ | b | [b] |
| ﺕ | ﺗ | ﺘ | ﺖ | tāʾ | t | [t] |
| ﺙ | ﺛ | ﺜ | ﺚ | ṯāʾ | ṯ / th | [θ] |
| ﺝ | ﺟ | ﺠ | ﺞ | ǧīm | ǧ / j / dj | [ʤ] |
| ﺡ | ﺣ | ﺤ | ﺢ | ḥāʾ | ḥ | [ħ] |
| ﺥ | ﺧ | ﺨ | ﺦ | ḫāʾ | ḫ / ẖ / kh | [x] |
| ﺩ | — | ﺪ | dāl | d | [d] | |
| ﺫ | — | ﺬ | ḏāl | ḏ / dh | [ð] | |
| ﺭ | — | ﺮ | rāʾ | r | [r] | |
| ﺯ | — | ﺰ | zāy | z | [z] | |
| ﺱ | ﺳ | ﺴ | ﺲ | sīn | s | [s] |
| ﺵ | ﺷ | ﺸ | ﺶ | šīn | š / sh | [ʃ] |
| ﺹ | ﺻ | ﺼ | ﺺ | ṣād | ṣ | [sˁ] |
| ﺽ | ﺿ | ﻀ | ﺾ | ḍād | ḍ | [dˁ], [ðˤ] |
| ﻁ | ﻃ | ﻄ | ﻂ | ṭāʾ | ṭ | [tˁ] |
| ﻅ | ﻇ | ﻈ | ﻆ | zāʾ | ẓ | [zˁ], [ðˁ] |
| ﻉ | ﻋ | ﻌ | ﻊ | ʿayn | ʿ / ‘ | [ʔˤ] |
| ﻍ | ﻏ | ﻐ | ﻎ | ġayn | ġ / gh | [ɣ] |
| ﻑ | ﻓ | ﻔ | ﻒ | fāʾ | f | [f] |
| ﻕ | ﻗ | ﻘ | ﻖ | qāf | q / ḳ | [q] |
| ﻙ | ﻛ | ﻜ | ﻚ | kāf | k | [k] |
| ﻝ | ﻟ | ﻠ | ﻞ | lām | l | [l] |
| ﻡ | ﻣ | ﻤ | ﻢ | mīm | m | [m] |
| ﻥ | ﻧ | ﻨ | ﻦ | nūn | n | [n] |
| ﻩ | ﻫ | ﻬ | ﻪ | hāʾ | h | [h] |
| ﻭ | — | ﻮ | wāw | w | [w] | |
| ﻱ | ﻳ | ﻴ | ﻲ | yāʾ | y | [j] |
Letters lacking an initial or medial version are never tied to the following letter, even in a word. As to ﺀ hamza, it has only a single graphic, since it is never tied to a preceding or following letter. The hamza can also act as a diacritic (in this case it is said to have a carrier). For there is no Arabic word beginning with an ʾalif, hamza is actually the first letter of the alphabet.
Other letters[edit]
| Stand-alone | Initial | Medial | Final | Name | Trans. | Value |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ﺁ | — | ﺂ | ʾalif madda | ʾā | [ʔaː] | |
| ﺓ | — | ﺔ | tāʾ marbūṭa | h et t / Ø / h / ẗ | [a], [at] | |
| ﻯ | — | ﻰ | ʾalif maqṣūra | ā / ỳ | [aː] | |
| ﻻ | — | ﻼ | lām ʾalif | lā | [laː] | |
Notes[edit]
Writing the hamza[edit]
Initially, the letter ʾalif indicated a occlusive glottal, or glottal stop, transcribed by [ʔ], in common with other alphabets of Phoenician origin. Now it is used in the same manner as in other abjads, with yāʾ and wāw, as a mater lectionis[5]. In fact, over the course of time its phonetic value has been obscured, since, ʾalif serves principally to replace phonemes or to serve as a graphic support for certain diacritics.
The Arabic alphabet now mainly uses the hamza to indicate a glottal stop, which can appear anywhere in a word. This letter, however, does not function like the others: it can be written alone or on a support in which case it becomes a diacritic:
- with a support : ء ;
- with a support : إ ,أ (above and under a ʾalif), ؤ (above a wāw), ئ (above a yāʾ 'without points or yāʾ hamza).
The details of writing of the hamza are discussed below, after a discussion of vowels and then syllable-division marks, because their functions are interrelated.
Ligatures[edit]
lām+ʾalif, etc.
Diacritics[edit]
Vowels[edit]
Generally, vowels (brief or long) are not written down, except in some holy or didactic texts where the latest are said to be « voiced ». A diacritic means brief vowel if it is located above or under the previous consonant in the syllabus, while long ones are noted by the diacritic of the equivalent brief one , followed by a consonnant (ʾalif for the extension of /a/, yāʾ for /i/ and wāw for /u/, i.e. aā = ā, iy = ī and uw = ū) ; non voiced texts, long vowels are shown by the corresponding consonnants (ā, y, w). While no arabian syllabus begin with a vowel (e.g there is an initial consonnant in first name like Ali, ʿAlī, or word like ʾalif), there is no independant representation.
Alphabet handles long vowels, written thanks to diagram, as a series of vowel+regular consonant, which requires the use of sukūn (Cf. thereafter) in a fully diacritical text.
For clarity's sake, vowles would be located over or below the letter ﺕ tāʾ ; thus you should read the results [ta], [ti], [tu], etc. However letters are not linked together: therefore a correct representation of ā is tā, written تَا instead of تَا.
| Simple vowels | Name | Trans. | Value |
|---|---|---|---|
| تَ | fatḥa | a | [a] |
| تِ | kasra | i | [i] |
| تُ | ḍamma | u | [u] |
| تَا | fatḥa ʾalif | ā | [aː] |
| تَى | fatḥa ʾalif maqṣūra | ā / aỳ | [aː] |
| تِي | kasra yāʾ | ī / iy | [iː] |
| تُو | ḍamma wāw | ū / uw | [uː] |
Diphtongs [ay] & [au][edit]
They are simply noted by a brief vowel, followed by a spirant consonnant [j] or [w]. Writing handle it like ī and ū, i.e. doesn't distinguish it from other series of vowels+consonants. You could classified among diphtongs those beginning with īy and ūw as well; however they aren't voweld followed by a consonant. Like before, t precedes diphtongs and letters are not liked.
| Diphtong | Name | Trans. | Value |
|---|---|---|---|
| تَيْ | fatḥa yāʾ | ay | [ai] |
تَوْ | fatḥa wāw | aw | [au] |
Voyelles casuelles[edit]
Lors de la flexion nominale, les noms peuvent recevoir trois désinences différentes, -a, -i, et -u. Celles-ci ne sont pas écrites dans un texte non vocalisé, sinon, les signes habituels sont employés. Cependant, si le mot est indéfini (sans article ni complément du nom), il prend (sauf exceptions) les désinences -an, -in, -un, nommées tanwīn. Celles-ci sont notées par des diacritiques spéciaux qui remplacent la voyelle ainsi que la lettre -n attendue en fin de mot ; selon que le texte est vocalisé ou non, la notation change :
- tanwīn -an (tanwīn al-fatḥa) : ــًـ ; un ʾalif est placé à la suite du tanwīn, sauf si le mot se termine par ة tāʾ marbūṭa [a(t)] (suffixe de féminin), ou par un hamza, أ [aʔ] ou اء, [āʔ], auquel cas le tanwīn reste seul ; dans un texte non vocalisé, seul le ʾalif est écrit, si c'est possible :
- رَجُلًا raǧulan, « homme (cas direct) » ; non vocalisé : رجلاً,
- عَادَةً ʿādatan, « d'habitude » (noter l'utilisation du tāʾ marbūṭa prononcé ici [at] devant voyelle) ; non vocalisé : عادة (pas d'ʾalif après ة),
- tanwīn -in (tanwīn aḍ-ḍamma) : ــٍـ ; il n'est pas écrit dans les textes non vocalisés :
- رَجُلٍ raǧulin, « homme (cas indirect) » ; non vocalisé : رجل ;
- tanwīn -in (tanwīn al-kasra) : ــٌـ (il existe une deuxième graphie, ressemblant à « ” » suscrit) ; il n'est pas écrit dans les textes non vocalisés :
- رَجُلٌ, « homme (cas sujet) » : non vocalisé : دجل (le cas sujet et le cas indirect ne se distinguent donc pas).
Dans la pratique, le [n] des tanwīn n'est pas prononcés (sauf des expressions adverbiales figées). Il appartient à la langue littéraire de l'arabe classique.
Signes de syllabation et autres[edit]
De même que pour les signes de vocalisation, les signes de syllabation ne sont pas obligatoirement écrits. Ils permettent cependant une grande précision et s'utilisent parfois quand le texte n'est pas vocalisé.
Sukūn[edit]
An Arabic syllable can be open (ended by a vowel) or closed (ended by a consonant).
- open: C[onsonant]V[owel];
- closed: CVC(C).
Quand la syllabe est fermée, on peut indiquer que la consonne qui la ferme ne porte aucune voyelle en plaçant au dessus un signe nommé sukūn, de la forme « ° », pour lever tout ambiguïté, surtout quand le texte n'est pas vocalisé : il faut se souvenir qu'un texte standard n'est composé que de suites de consonnes ; ainsi, le mot qalb, « cœur », est écrit qlb. Les sukūn permettent de savoir où ne pas placer une voyelle : qlb (قلب) pourrait en effet être lu /qVlVbV/, mais écrit avec un sukūn sur le l et sur le b, il ne peut être interprété que sous la forme /qVlb/ (quant à savoir quelle est la voyelle /V/, il faut pour cela connaître le mot) ; on écrit donc قلْبْ (sans ligatures : قلْبْ). De fait, dans un texte vocalisé le sukūn se semble pas nécessaire, puisque le placement des voyelles est sûr : قِلْبْ est quelque peu redondant.
L'on peut faire de même pour l'écriture des voyelles longues et des diphtongues, puisque celles-ci sont notées par une voyelle suivie d'une consonne : ainsi mūsīqā, « musique », s'écrit de manière non vocalisée mwsyqā (موسيقى avec un ʾalif maqṣūra en fin de mot) ; pour éviter une lecture /mVwVsVyVqā/, il est possible d'indiquer que w et y ferment leur syllabe respective : موْسيْقىْ (noter que ʾalif maqṣūra est considéré comme une consonne et qu'il porte donc aussi le sukūn). Le mot, entièrement vocalisé, est écrit مُوْسِيْقَىْ. De même pour les diphtongues : le mot zauǧ, « mari », peut être écrit simplement zwǧ : زوج, avec sukūn : زوْجْ, avec sukūn et voyelle : زَوْجْ. Dans la pratique, le sukūn n'est pas placé au-dessus des lettres servant à indiquer l'allongement de la voyelle qui précède : mūsīqā sera plus simplement écrit مُوسِيقَى. De même, il n'est que rarement placé en fin de mot quand la dernière syllabe est fermée.
Šadda[edit]
Ce signe, de forme « ّ » sert à faire l'économie d'une lettre quand deux consonnes identiques se suivent : c'est le cas lorsqu'une syllabe fermée terminée par une consonne X précède une autre syllabe débutant par cette consonne X. On place la šadda au-dessus d'une des consonnes, tandis que l'autre n'est pas écrite : ainsi, le mot šadda lui-même est orthographié شدّ au lieu de شدد ; le mot, vocalisé, donne شَدَّ. Il n'y a donc plus besoin d'utiliser un sukūn ; sinon, l'on écrirait *شَدْدَ.
La šadda se rencontre très fréquemment dans les cas d'assimilation de la consonne [l] de l'article devant consonne solaire : ainsi, « la lune » s'écrit أَلْقَمَر ʾal-qamar, mais « le soleil » est noté أَلشَّمْس ʾaš-šams (il est écrit en réalité ʾalššams).
Noter le placement des signes de vocalisation :
- fatḥa [a] et ḍamma [u] sont écrits au-dessus de la šadda tandis que kasra est écrite soit régulièrement sous la consonne qui la porte, soit sous la šadda : il ne faut donc pas confondre ﳲ et ﳴ ;
- les tanwīn [an] et [un] suivent les mêmes principes (au-dessus de la šadda), mais le tanwīn [in] ne se place qu'au-dessous de sa lettre (et non sous la šadda).
Writing of the hamza[edit]
On l'a dit, la hamza peut se présenter sans ou avec support. Les règles d'écritures dépendent en fait du vocalisme et de la syllabation. It is necessary to consider the place of the word where the hamza appears::
1. hamza à l'initiale :
- elle a toujours le support ʾalif et elle est toujours suivie d'une voyelle ;
- elle se place au-dessous du ʾalif si la voyelle qui suit est /i/, long ou bref, que le texte soit vocalisé ou non : إِ et إ notent tous deux ʾi, comme dans le prénom ʾIbrāhīm, écrit إِبْرَاهِيم ou إبراهيم ;
- elle se place au-dessus du ʾalif dans les autres cas : ʾa est noté أَ ou أ, tandis que ʾu est écrit أُ ou أ, par exemple ; ainsi أَنْتَ ou أنت ʾanta, « toi (masculin) » ; أُسْبُوع ou أسبوع ʾusbūʿ, « semaine » ; أَيْنَ ou أين ʾayna, « où ? », etc.
2. Hamza à la finale :
- son support varie selon le timbre de la voyelle qui précède ;
- si c'est /a/, /i/ ou /o/ suivis de hamza, les supports sont respectivement ʾalif, yāʾ hamza (sans points), wāw : مُبْتَدَأ "mubtadaʾ, « commencement » ;
- dans les autres cas (avant sukūn, lettre d'allongement, etc.), hamza n'a pas de support : شَيْء šayʾ, « chose » ; بَاْء bāʾ, « lettre B », ضَوْء ḍawʾ, « lumière ».
Letters used for other languages[edit]
- to be written
Regarding transliteration[edit]
- to be written
Notes[edit]
- ^ a b A term borrowed from Arabic. As linguists would define the term, a pure abjad writing system would write only consonants but the situation with Arabic is complicated by the presence of dual-purpose letters and the fact that long vowels are written. Semitic languages have word roots consisting of three letters. Filling in combinations of vowels after the letters creates related words. In other words, the absence of the short vowels still gives a good clue of the meaning even if the reader is unable to supply the missing short vowels from context
- ^ before 1928date at which Ataturk imposed use of the latin alphabet. Note that there is a continuing struggle in Central Asia for previously illiterate languages to be written down, either with a Turkish-like (latin alphabet) solution (and many of these languages are related to Turkish), or with an Arabic-language based solution
- ^ For details concerning the use of the Arabic alphabet for other languages, see The Arabic Writing in Five Lessons by F.E. Sommer, included as an appendix to Arabic for Beginners with a Guide to Practical Writing, Revised Edition by Dr Syed Ali, Hyppocrene Books, New York, 1993. That book by implication makes it clear how close a fit the unmodified Arabic alphabet is to various languages that use it. Persian: 4 additional letters all familiar to English speakers, Hindi: 3 extra letters, Pashto (what the book calls Afghani): 12 including 9 sounds alien to both Arabic and English, and Sindhi: 16 (including a symbol for 'v' which isn't used in Sinhdi but is used for loanwords from other languages).
- ^ As are nearly all Western alphabets
- ^ Mother of reading, an early method of indicating a vowel in a consonant-only writing system (i.e. abjad). The term arose in the study of Hebrew but applies to Arabic.
See also[edit]
Arabic pronunciation ~ writing system ~ alphabet ~ Arabic language