User:MoonRabbit1992/Forensic psychology

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Response to DaliaArafat5221's peer review:

Than you for your feedback. I will update my lead section if needed once I finish adding my new sections. I agree the popular culture section could be expanded on, and I will move the pay info back to its original section and expand to include careers where forensic psychology is useful.

Response to Laggo0515's peer review:

Thank you for your feedback. The titles under the history section are different sizes because they are sub-sections of the history regarding forensic psychology. The only sub-section that may be more appropriate as its own section would be the popular culture section. I will consider reformatting, expanding, and moving it to make it more appropriate for the article.

Response to Apollo1997's peer review:

Thank you for your feedback. I will consider expanding the key legal cases and advocacy sections. Regarding citations, I will either find appropriate sources or remove the information.

Forensic psychology is the practice of psychology applied to the law. Forensic psychology is the application of scientific knowledge and methods to help answer legal questions arising in criminal, civil, contractual, or other judicial proceedings. Forensic psychology includes research on various psychology-law topics, such as jury selection, reducing systemic racism in criminal law, eyewitness testimony, evaluating competency to stand trial, or assessing military veterans for service-connected disability compensation. The field traces its roots to contributions by Wilhelm Wundt, Hugo Münsterberg, and Sigmund Freud, among others. Contemporary definitions of forensic psychology recognize that several subfields of psychology apply "the scientific, technical, or specialized knowledge of psychology to the law." The American Psychological Association's Specialty Guidelines for Forensic Psychologists reference several psychology subdisciplines, such as social, clinical, experimental, counseling, and neuropsychology.

Early development of forensic psychology[edit]

Wilhelm Wundt is commonly known for being as the first to begin experimentation in the field of psychology and, thus, igniting the flame for future individuals to apply these experimental processes to various contexts, including legal ones.[1][2] A student of Wundt and the first director of Harvard's psychological laboratory, Hugo Münsterberg, authored On the Witness Stand in the first decade of the 20th century.[2][3] Münsterberg used this publication to bridge the gap between psychological and legal principles through the introduction of by introducing psychological research that could be applied in legal proceedings.[4] Sigmund Freud discussed how psychopathological processes play a role in criminal behavior.[2] Lightner Witmer, William Stern, and William Healy also contributed to the early development of forensic psychology.[5]

Key legal cases[edit]

Brown v. Board of Education[edit]

Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 1954,[6] was the first case where the Supreme Court of the United States referenced expert opinions by psychologists.[7] After this, the addition of psychological mechanisms within courtrooms began to be considered beneficial.[7]

Jenkins v. United States (1962)[8][edit]

Several years after the ruling of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka ruling, Justice David Bazelon of the D.C. Circuit Court of Appeals ruled that psychologists had the legal authority to testify as medical experts about mental illness.[9][7]

Establishment in psychological societies[edit]

The American Psychology–Law Society (AP-LS) was created in 1969 and later converted into Division 41 of the APA in 1980.[7] As the field continued to grow, more organizations supported the study of psychology with and its application to the law. In 1976, the American Board of Forensic Psychology (ABFP) was chartered, eventually becoming and eventually became a part of the American Board of Professional Psychology (ABPP) in 1985.[7] Later, Organizations and conferences later aided in solidifying the development of forensic psychology, such as the American Academy of Forensic Psychology and the National Invitational Conference on Education and Training in Forensic Psychology (1995).[7][10] By 2001, the field of forensic psychology was recognized as a professional specialty by the American Psychological Association (APA).[7]

Notable contributions to forensic psychology[edit]

Saul Kassin[edit]

Dr. Saul Kassin is a professor at John Jay College of Criminal Justice in New York. He is best known for his research on false confessions, which began while working on his postdoctoral degree with Larry Wrightsman at the University of Kansas. While working with Wrightsman on research regarding jury decision-making, Kassin noticed that conviction rates rose when a confession was included. Curious about how these confessions were retrieved, Kassin asked Wrightsman if they could include confession evidence as part of their research on jury decision-making. Wrightsman agreed, and they published two articles on confessions in 1980 and 1981. Kassin conducted further research on false confessions in his lab with students at Williams College. Kassin's New York Times article "False Confessions and the Jogger Case" was also instrumental in overturning the convictions of five boys who had been falsely convicted of the rape of a jogger.[11]

David V. Canter[edit]

David V. Canter is a director of the International Centre of Investigative Psychology at the University of Liverpool and is credited with the creation of the term investigative psychology, which is a sub-specialization of forensic psychology that involves the understanding of criminal behavior and the investigative process.[12] Canter also played a part in the capture of the Railway Rapists with his psychological profile of the killers.[13]

William Stern[edit]

William Stern, a German psychologist, contributed to forensic psychology with his experiments on eyewitness testimony.[14] In addition to his research, Stern provided expert testimony in nearly 30 cases, assessing a child witness's credibility by determining the consistency of statements and the influence of leading questions in court.[15]

Thomas Bond[edit]

Thomas Bond was a surgeon and expert in forensic medicine. Bond assisted with the Jack the Ripper case by providing his interpretation of the killer. This is considered the first instance of criminal profiling.[16]

William Marston[edit]

William Marston was a psychologist who discovered the lie detector in 1917.[12] The lie detector was designed to detect changes in blood pressure associated with deception.[17] In 1923, Marston brought his lie detector to court in the case Frye v. United States at the request of James A. Frye's attorneys, who hoped Marston's device would prove their client's innocence. The results were not deemed admissible, though, due to lie detection not being widely accepted in the scientific community. This led to the creation of the Frye standard, which states scientific evidence is only admissible when it has prominent standing within the scientific community.[18]

Forensic psychology in popular culture[edit]

Recently, forensic psychology has grown in popularity in the media and among younger generations. For example, many recent docuseries on Netflix feature forensic psychological content, including Making a Murderer and Sins of our Mother. Other TV shows and movies such as Criminal Minds, Manhunter, Mindhunter, and Silence of The Lambs have widely popularized the practice of criminal profiling, particularly within the Federal Bureau of Investigation's (FBI) Behavioral Analysis Unit (BAU).[19]

Legal Cases[edit]

Ted Bundy[edit]

One example of a well-known case that used forensic psychology was Ted Bundy's sentencing. Ted Bundy was a serial killer and rapist in the 1970s who, after being arrested three times, confessed to killing 36 women.[20] In 1980, he went to trial and was evaluated by multiple psychology professionals to determine his ability to stand before the court.

After his first arrest, Dr. Al C. Carlisle evaluated Bundy and reported finding two distinct personas. Carlisle found he could be normal and friendly, but evil simultaneously. Carlisle diagnosed Bundy with a dependent personality disorder.[21] A dependent personality disorder is defined as individuals doubting their abilities and having an intense need to be taken care of.[22]

Another evaluation from the prosecution's expert, psychiatrist Dr. Hervey Cleckley, found that Bundy was a psychopath.[21] A psychopath is an individual who is detached, selfish, and possesses a lack of empathy.[23]  Cleckley stated that Bundy was a psychopath but was able to could handle himself enough to stand trial. Dorothy Ottnow Lewis, a psychiatrist from New York, supported the diagnosis of a psychopath.

The results from the multiple psychologist evaluations determined that Ted Bundy was fit to stand before the court.[21]

Practice and research in forensic psychology[edit]

Forensic psychology may be utilized in five major areas (police and public safety, law, crime and delinquency, victimology and victim services, and corrections) and two sub-areas (family and schools).[12]

Practice/direct service

Forensic psychologists complete evaluations and assessments to assess a person's psychological state for legal purposes.[24][25] Reasons for completing these evaluations can involve acquiring information for criminal court (such as insanity or incompetence), for criminal sentencing or parole hearings (often regarding a potential intellectual disability that prevents sentencing or one's risk of recidivism), for family court (including child custody or parental termination cases), or civil court (involving, for example, personal injury, competence to manage one's financial affairs, and psychological autopsies especially as related to testamentary capacity.)[26][27] Additional assessments that these professionals can perform include school threats.[28] There is great debate about whether these Forensic Psychological evaluations constitute as health care treatment, with the majority of most arguments claiming they do not.[29] It is important to note that while a forensic psychologist is responsible for assessing and reporting the results of an evaluation, they do not make decisions on "ultimate issues" such as competence to stand trial or service-connected disability for U.S. military veterans.[30][31] Instead, the information provided by the expert evaluator is analyzed and is ruled on by the court which ordered the evaluation to take place.[31]

Treatment

Forensic psychologists may be asked to administer psychological interventions to those who require or request services in both requiring or requesting services in criminal and civil cases. In regard to Regarding criminal cases, forensic psychologists can work with individuals who have already been sentenced to reduce the likelihood of repeating his or her their offense. In these cases, o Other treatments are frequently put together in these cases, especially for substance use disorder, sex offenders, mental illness, or anger management.[32] As for civil proceedings, forensic psychology treats families going through divorce cases, custody cases, and psychological injuries as a result of due to some kind of trauma. Treatment often occurs in forensic and state psychiatric hospitals, mental health centers, and private practices.[33]

Consultations

Providing consultations allows forensic psychologists to apply psychological expertise and research to help law enforcement, attorneys, and other legal professionals or proceedings better understand human behavior (e.g. criminal, witness, victim, jury), civil processes, effects of trauma or other life events, and so on. If working as a consultant, a forensic psychologist is able to can be involved in legal proceedings through responsibilities such as reviewing court records (such as a defendant's psychosocial history or assessing mitigating or aggravating factors in a case), serving as a jury consultant (organizing focus groups, shadow juries, mock juries, or helping with the voir dire proceedings), and assessment without testimony (in which results of a defendant's evaluation are not disclosed to the prosecution team, allowing the defense team to develop a defense strategy), among others. Essentially, consultations can take a number of many forms, including the common ones below:

  1. Law enforcement consultations may take the form of assisting with criminal profiling, developing hiring procedures and methods, determining the psychological fitness of returning officers, or simply lending expertise on certain criminal behaviors.[34][35] There are several methods and approaches related to criminal profiling, but there is a lot of skepticism and criticism about the efficiency and accuracy of criminal profiling in general.[36][37] A couple of common approaches are the scientific approach, which includes the FBI's Crime Scene Analysis and Canter's Investigative Psychology, and the intuitive approach, which includes Tukey's Behavioral Evidence Analysis.[38][39][40][41]
  2. Trial consultants are psychologists who work with legal professionals, such as attorneys, to aid in case preparation. This includes jury selection, development of case strategy, and witness preparation.[42][43] Forensic psychologists working as trial consultants rely on research in order to best advise the individuals they are working with. Because trial consultants are often hired by one specific side in a trial, these psychologists are faced with face many ethical issues. It is the responsibility of the psychologist psychologist's responsibility to remain neutral when consulting; in other words, the consultant must not choose a side to support and consequentially omit or create information that would be beneficial to one side or another. Prior to Before accepting a case to work on, it is important that the forensic psychologist weighs the responsibilities of consulting on that case with the ethical guidelines put in place for the field of forensic psychology.[44]

Expert testimony about matters relating to psychology is also an area in which forensic psychologists play an active role.[45][46] Unlike fact witnesses, who are limited to testifying about what they know or have observed, expert witnesses have the ability to express further knowledge of a situation or topic because, as their name suggests, they are presumed to be "experts" in a certain topic and possess specialized knowledge about it.[47] The requirements that must be met for forensic psychologists to be considered expert witnesses include clinical psychology expertise and knowledge of the laws that have jurisdiction over the court they are to testify.[48] Procedural and legal rules guide expert testimony, which include that the evidence must be relevant to the case, the method the expert used must be valid and reliable, and that the evidence will help the trier of fact.[45] An expert can be deposed by opposing counsel to discover what they plan to say in court., and a Attorneys have the opportunity to raise a challenge to the admissibility of the expert's testimony if there are questions about its relevance, or its validity and reliability (in the United States - the rules vary by country and jurisdiction).[45] Regardless of who calls in the expert, it is the judge who determines whether or not the expert witness will be accepted through a voir dire process of qualification.[49]

Research[edit]

Forensic psychology researchers make scientific discoveries relevant to psychology and the law and they also sometimes provide expert witness testimony.[46][50] These professionals usually have an advanced degree in psychology (most likely a Ph.D.). These professionals may be employed in various settings, which include colleges and universities, research institutes, government or private agencies, and mental health agencies.[51] Researchers test hypotheses empirically regarding issues related to psychology and the law, such as jury research and research on mental health law and policy evaluation.[51] Their research may be published in forensic psychology journals such as Law and Human Behavior or Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, as well as and more broadly, in basic psychology journals. Some famous psychologists in the field include Scott Lilienfeld, who was widely known for his scholarship on psychopathology and psychopathy; Saul Kassin, who is widely known for studying false confessions; Jennifer Skeem, who is widely known for studying justice-involved people with mental illness; Michael Saks, who is known for his contributions to jury research and improvements to forensic science; Barbara Spellman, who is known for her cognitive psychology-law work as well as for her open science leadership; and Elizabeth Loftus and Gary Wells, who are both known for their research on eyewitness memory.

Education[edit]

Academic forensic psychologists engage in teaching, researching, training, and supervision of teach, research, train, and supervise students, among other education-related activities. These professionals also have an advanced degree in psychology (most likely a Ph.D.) and are most often employed at colleges and universities. In addition to holding professorships, forensic psychologists may engage in education through by presenting research, hosting talks relating to about a particular subject, or engaging with and educating the community about a relevant forensic psychology topic.[46]

Advocacy[edit]

Through advocacy, forensic psychologists can use psychological research to influence laws and policies. These may be related to certain movements, such as Black Lives Matter or the Me Too movement, or may even be related to certain civil rights that are being overlooked.[52]

Training and education[edit]

Forensic psychology involves both elements of basic as well as applied work. Forensic psychologists may hold a Ph.D. or Psy.D. in clinical psychology, counseling psychology, social psychology, organizational psychology, school psychology, or experimental psychology under accredited institutions.[53] Additionally, 2 years of supervised experience in their field is necessary.[53] There are no specific license requirements in the United States to be a forensic psychologist, although U.S. states, territories, and the District of Columbia require licensure for psychologists in the state they intend to practice.[54] Certification specifically in forensic psychology is also available.[54]

In other countries, training and practitioner requirements may vary. In the United Kingdom, for example, a person must obtain the Graduate Basis for Registration with the British Psychological Society – normally through an undergraduate degree. This would be followed by Stages 1 (academic) and 2 (supervised practice) of the Diploma in Forensic Psychology (which would normally take 3 years full-time and 4 years part-time). Assessment occurs via examination, research, supervised practice, and the submission of a portfolio showing expertise across a range of criminological and legal applications of psychology. Once qualified as a "chartered" psychologist (with a specialism in forensic psychology), a practitioner must engage in continued professional development and demonstrate how much and of what kind, each year, in order to renew their practicing certificate. Citation Needed

There are 65 forensic psychology degree programs offered in the US. Average tuition cost is $9,475 in-state and $25,856 out-of-state.[55]

There is a wide range of pay for individuals in the forensic psychology field.[56] In the United States, the median annual income of clinical-forensic psychologists is $125,000 - $149,999, and the pay can range from $50,000 (entry-level) a year to more than $350,000 a year.[57]

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  50. ^ Neal, Tess M. S. (July 2018). "Forensic psychology and correctional psychology: Distinct but related subfields of psychological science and practice". American Psychologist. 73 (5): 651–662. doi:10.1037/amp0000227. PMID 29431456. S2CID 46817929.
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Instructor Feedback (you may delete once addressed):

I see above where there is a "Citation needed" on the second paragraph. Do you intend to address this specific need? Can you consider updating the number of programs available worldwide? This figure is 6 years old and it is likely this can be updated. I appreciate the new information added about pay and pay disparity. This is an excellent and appropriate addition! It appears that your second citation with Neal and Line is not formatted correctly (you have an extra bracket with an A after the bracketed 5). Currently, you have included one internet citation and one peer-reviewed publication. You will need a minimum of two peer-reviewed secondary literature sources for this assignment. I think this is a solid start, but what else do you plan to add regarding forensic psychology? Do you have plans for a new section (see rubric for requirements)? Keep up the good work and I am excited to see how this evolves.

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