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Vomiting

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"Vomit" redirects here. For other uses, see Vomit (disambiguation).
"Emesis" redirects here. For the butterfly genus, see Emesis (genus).
"Heaving" redirects here. For the sailing term, see Heaving to. For the sailing term "heaving down", see Careening.
"Puke" redirects here. For other uses, see Puke (disambiguation).

Vomiting

Vomiting, also known as emesis and throwing up, among other terms, is the involuntary, forceful expulsion of the contents of one's stomach through the mouth and sometimes the nose.[1]

Vomiting can be caused by a wide variety of conditions; it may present as a specific response to ailments like gastritis or poisoning, or as a non-specific sequela of disorders ranging from brain tumors and elevated intracranial pressure to overexposure to ionizing radiation. The feeling that one is about to vomit is called nausea, which often precedes, but does not always lead to, vomiting. Antiemetics are sometimes necessary to suppress nausea and vomiting. In severe cases, where dehydration develops, intravenous fluid may be required.

Vomiting is different from regurgitation, although the two terms are often used interchangeably. Regurgitation is the return of undigested food back up the esophagus to the mouth, without the force and displeasure associated with vomiting. The causes of vomiting and regurgitation are generally different.

Complications

Aspiration of vomit

Vomiting can be dangerous if the gastric content enters the respiratory tract. Under normal circumstances the gag reflex and coughing prevent this from occurring; however, these protective reflexes are compromised in persons under the influences of certain substances such as alcohol or anesthesia. The individual may choke and asphyxiate or suffer an aspiration pneumonia.[citation needed]

Dehydration and electrolyte imbalance

Prolonged and excessive vomiting depletes the body of water (dehydration), and may alter the electrolyte status. Gastric vomiting leads to the loss of acid (protons) and chloride directly. Combined with the resulting alkaline tide, this leads to hypochloremic metabolic alkalosis (low chloride levels together with high HCO−
3 and CO
2 and increased blood pH) and often hypokalemia (potassium depletion). The hypokalemia is an indirect result of the kidney compensating for the loss of acid. With the loss of intake of food the individual may eventually become cachectic. A less frequent occurrence results from a vomiting of intestinal contents, including bile acids and HCO−
3, which can cause metabolic acidosis.[citation needed]

Mallory–Weiss tear

Repeated or profuse vomiting may cause erosions to the esophagus or small tears in the esophageal mucosa (Mallory–Weiss tear). This may become apparent if fresh red blood is mixed with vomit after several episodes.[citation needed]

Dentistry

Recurrent vomiting, such as observed in bulimia nervosa, may lead to destruction of the tooth enamel due to the acidity of the vomit. Digestive enzymes can also have a negative effect on oral health, by degrading the tissue of the gums.[citation needed]

Pathophysiology

A Renaissance drawing with vivid colours depicting a woman holding the head of a man, who is bent over and expelling a brownish-red material from his mouth. A second woman stands at the left of the image in the doorway to the room, and appears to offer support. A crude representation of vomiting.
14th-century illustration of vomiting from the Casanatense Tacuinum Sanitatis

Receptors on the floor of the fourth ventricle of the brain represent a chemoreceptor trigger zone, known as the area postrema, stimulation of which can lead to vomiting. The area postrema is a circumventricular organ and as such lies outside the blood–brain barrier; it can therefore be stimulated by blood-borne drugs that can stimulate vomiting or inhibit it.[2]

There are various sources of input to the vomiting center:

The vomiting act encompasses three types of outputs initiated by the chemoreceptor trigger zone: Motor, parasympathetic nervous system (PNS), and sympathetic nervous system (SNS). They are as follows:[citation needed]

The neurotransmitters that regulate vomiting are poorly understood, but inhibitors of dopamine, histamine, and serotonin are all used to suppress vomiting, suggesting that these play a role in the initiation or maintenance of a vomiting cycle. Vasopressin and neurokinin may also participate.[citation needed]

Phases

The vomiting act has two phases. In the retching phase, the abdominal muscles undergo a few rounds of coordinated contractions together with the diaphragm and the muscles used in respiratory inspiration. For this reason, an individual may confuse this phase with an episode of violent hiccups. In this retching phase nothing has yet been expelled. In the next phase, also termed the expulsive phase, intense pressure is formed in the stomach brought about by enormous shifts in both the diaphragm and the abdomen. These shifts are, in essence, vigorous contractions of these muscles that last for extended periods of time - much longer than a normal period of muscular contraction. The pressure is then suddenly released when the upper esophageal sphincter relaxes resulting in the expulsion of gastric contents. Individuals who do not regularly exercise their abdominal muscles may experience pain in those muscles for a few days. The relief of pressure and the release of endorphins into the bloodstream after the expulsion causes the vomiter to feel better.[citation needed]

Contents

Gastric secretions and likewise vomit are highly acidic. Recent food intake appears in the gastric vomit. Irrespective of the content, vomit tends to be malodorous.[citation needed]

The content of the vomitus (vomit) may be of medical interest. Fresh blood in the vomit is termed hematemesis ("blood vomiting"). Altered blood bears resemblance to coffee grounds (as the iron in the blood is oxidized) and, when this matter is identified, the term coffee-ground vomiting is used. Bile can enter the vomit during subsequent heaves due to duodenal contraction if the vomiting is severe. Fecal vomiting is often a consequence of intestinal obstruction or a gastrocolic fistula and is treated as a warning sign of this potentially serious problem (signum mali ominis).[citation needed]

If the vomiting reflex continues for an extended period with no appreciable vomitus, the condition is known as non-productive emesis or "dry heaves", which can be painful and debilitating.[citation needed]

Color of vomit[citation needed]
  • Bright red in the vomit suggests bleeding from the esophagus
  • Dark red vomit with liver-like clots suggests profuse bleeding in the stomach, such as from a perforated ulcer
  • Coffee-ground-like vomit suggests less severe bleeding in the stomach, because the gastric acid has had time to change the composition of the blood
  • Yellow vomit suggests bile, indicating that the pyloric valve is open and bile is flowing into the stomach from the duodenum (this is more common in older people)

Differential diagnosis

Vomiting may be due to a large number of causes, and protracted vomiting has a long differential diagnosis.[citation needed]

Digestive tract

Causes in the digestive tract

Sensory system and brain

An intoxicated woman vomiting

Causes in the sensory system:[citation needed]

Causes in the brain:[citation needed]

Metabolic disturbances (these may irritate both the stomach and the parts of the brain that coordinate vomiting):[citation needed]

Pregnancy:[citation needed]

Drug reaction (vomiting may occur as an acute somatic response to):[citation needed]

Illness (sometimes colloquially known as "stomach flu"—a broad name that refers to gastric inflammation caused by a range of viruses and bacteria):[citation needed]

Emetics

An emetic, such as syrup of ipecac, is a substance that induces vomiting when administered orally or by injection. An emetic is used medically when a substance has been ingested and must be expelled from the body immediately (for this reason, many toxic and easily digestible products such as rat poison contain an emetic). Inducing vomiting can remove the substance before it is absorbed into the body. Ipecac abuse can cause detrimental health effects.[citation needed]

Salt water and mustard water have been used since ancient times as emetics.[8] Care must be taken with salt, as excessive intake can potentially be harmful.[9][10]

Copper sulfate was also used in the past as an emetic.[11][12] It is now considered too toxic for this use.[13]

Hydrogen peroxide is used as an emetic in veterinary practice.[14][15]

Social cues

A drunk man vomiting, while a young slave is holding his forehead. Brygos Painter, 500–470 BC

It is quite common that, when one person vomits, others nearby become nauseated, particularly when smelling the vomit of others, often to the point of vomiting themselves. It is believed that this is an evolved trait among primates. Many primates in the wild tend to browse for food in small groups. Should one member of the party react adversely to some ingested food, it may be advantageous (in a survival sense) for other members of the party to also vomit. This tendency in human populations has been observed at drinking parties, where excessive consumption of alcoholic beverages may cause a number of party members to vomit nearly simultaneously, this being triggered by the initial vomiting of a single member of the party. This phenomenon has been touched on in popular culture: notorious instances appear in the films Monty Python's The Meaning of Life (1983) and Stand By Me (1986).[16]

Intense vomiting in ayahuasca ceremonies is a common phenomenon. However, people who experience "la purga" after drinking ayahuasca, in general, regard the practice as both a physical and spiritual cleanse and often come to welcome it.[17] It has been suggested that the consistent emetic effects of ayahuasca—in addition to its many other therapeutic properties—was of medicinal benefit to indigenous peoples of the Amazon, in helping to clear parasites from the gastrointestinal system.[18]

There have also been documented cases of a single ill and vomiting individual inadvertently causing others to vomit, when they are especially fearful of also becoming ill, through a form of mass hysteria.[citation needed]

Special bags are often supplied on boats for sick passengers to vomit into.

Most people try to contain their vomit by vomiting into a sink, toilet, or trash can, as vomit is difficult and unpleasant to clean. On airplanes and boats, special bags are supplied for sick passengers to vomit into. A special disposable bag (leakproof, puncture-resistant, odorless) containing absorbent material that solidifies the vomit quickly is also available, making it convenient and safe to store until there is an opportunity to dispose of it conveniently.[citation needed]

People who vomit chronically (e.g., as part of an eating disorder such as bulimia nervosa) may devise various ways to hide this disorder.[citation needed]

An online study of people's responses to "horrible sounds" found vomiting "the most disgusting". Professor Trevor Cox of the University of Salford's Acoustic Research Centre said that "We are pre-programmed to be repulsed by horrible things such as vomiting, as it is fundamental to staying alive to avoid nasty stuff." It is thought that disgust is triggered by the sound of vomiting to protect those nearby from possibly diseased food.[19]

Miscellanea

Other types

  • Projectile vomiting refers to vomiting that ejects the gastric contents with great force.[20] It is a classic symptom of infantile hypertrophic pyloric stenosis, in which it typically follows feeding and can be so forceful that some material exits through the nose.[21]

Treatment

An antiemetic is a drug that is effective against vomiting and nausea. Antiemetics are typically used to treat motion sickness and the side effects of medications such as opioids and chemotherapy.[citation needed]

Antiemetics act by inhibiting the receptor sites associated with emesis. Hence, anticholinergics, antihistamines, dopamine antagonists, serotonin antagonists, and cannabinoids are used as antiemetics.[22]

Evidence to support the use of antiemetics for nausea and vomiting among adults in the emergency department is poor.[23] It is unclear if any medication is better than another or better than no active treatment.[23]

Epidemiology

Nausea and/or vomiting are the main complaints in 1.6% of visits to family physicians in Australia.[24]

See also

References

  1. ^ Tintinalli, Judith E. (2010). Emergency Medicine: A Comprehensive Study Guide (Emergency Medicine (Tintinalli)). New York: McGraw-Hill Companies. p. 830. ISBN 0-07-148480-9.
  2. ^ Holland, James F.; Kufe, Donald W.; Weichselbaum, Ralph R.; Pollock, Raphael E.; Frei III, Emil; Gansler, Ted S.; Bast Jr., Robert C. (2003). Cancer medicine (6. [ed.]. ed.). Hamilton, Ontario [u.a.]: Decker. ISBN 9781550092134.
  3. ^ Hornby, PJ (2001). "Central neurocircuitry associated with emesis". The American Journal of Medicine. 111 Suppl 8A (8): 106S–112S. doi:10.1016/S0002-9343(01)00849-X. PMID 11749934.
  4. ^ Naylor, RJ; Inall, FC (January 1994). "The physiology and pharmacology of postoperative nausea and vomiting". Anaesthesia. 49 Suppl: 2–5. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2044.1994.tb03575.x. PMID 8129158.
  5. ^ Matsuoka, I; Ito, J; Takahashi, H; Sasa, M; Takaori, S (1984). "Experimental vestibular pharmacology: a minireview with special reference to neuroactive substances and antivertigo drugs". Acta oto-laryngologica. Supplementum. 419: 62–70. PMID 6399658.
  6. ^ Li–gui, Huang; En–tong, Wang; Wei, Chen; Wei–xi, Gong (June 2011). "Role of Histamine H1 Receptors in Vestibular Nucleus in Motion Sickness". Journal of Otology. 6 (1): 20–25. doi:10.1016/S1672-2930(11)50003-0.
  7. ^ Ray Andrew P.; Chebolu Seetha; Ramirez Juan; Darmani Nissar A (2009). "Ablation of Least Shrew Central Neurokinin NK1 Receptors Reduces GR73632-Induced Vomiting". Behavioural Neuroscience. 123 (3): 701–706. doi:10.1037/a0015733.
  8. ^ Decker, W. J. (1971). "In Quest of Emesis: Fact, Fable, and Fancy". Clinical Toxicology. 4 (3): 383–387. doi:10.3109/15563657108990490. PMID 4151103.
  9. ^ Moder, K. G.; Hurley, D. L. (1991). "Fatal hypernatremia from exogenous salt intake: report of a case and review of the literature". Mayo Clin Proc. 65 (12): 1587–94. doi:10.1016/S0025-6196(12)62194-6. PMID 2255221.
  10. ^ Salt: a natural antidepressant? The Scotsman. April 6, 2009.
  11. ^ Holtzmann NA, Haslam RH (July 1968). "Elevation of serum copper following copper sulfate as an emetic". Pediatrics. 42 (1): 189–93. PMID 4385403.
  12. ^ Wang, S. C.; Borison, Herbert L. (1951). "Copper Sulphate Emesis: A Study of Afferent Pathways from the Gastrointestinal Tract". Am J Physiol - Legacy Content. 164 (2): 520–526.
  13. ^ Olson, Kent C. (2004). Poisoning & drug overdose. New York: Lange Medical Mooks/McGraw-Hill. p. 175. ISBN 0-8385-8172-2.
  14. ^ "Drugs to Control or Stimulate Vomiting". Merck Veterinary manual. Merck & Co., Inc. 2006.
  15. ^ "How to Induce Vomiting (Emesis) in Dogs". Petplace.com. Retrieved 2014-05-03.
  16. ^ 9 Best Vomit Scenes On Film, screenjunkies.com
  17. ^ Shanon, B. (2002). The antipodes of the mind: Charting the phenomenology of the ayahuasca experience. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  18. ^ Andritzky, W. (1989). "Sociopsychotherapeutic functions of ayahuasca healing in Amazonia". Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 21 (1): 77–89. doi:10.1080/02791072.1989.10472145. PMID 2656954.
  19. ^ [1] University of Salford. January 28, 2007. Archived February 24, 2009, at the Wayback Machine
  20. ^ "vomiting - definition of vomiting in the Medical dictionary - by the Free Online Medical Dictionary, Thesaurus and Encyclopedia". Medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com. Retrieved 2014-05-03.
  21. ^ Sleisenger, edited by Mark Feldman, Lawrence S. Friedman, Lawrence J. Brandt; consulting editor, Marvin H. (2009). Sleisenger & Fordtran's gastrointestinal and liver disease pathophysiology, diagnosis, management (PDF) (9th ed.). St. Louis, Mo.: MD Consult. p. 783. ISBN 1-4160-6189-4. {{cite book}}: |first= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  22. ^ Mitchelson, F (March 1992). "Pharmacological agents affecting emesis. A review (Part I)". Drugs. 43 (3): 295–315. doi:10.2165/00003495-199243030-00002. PMID 1374316.
  23. ^ a b Furyk, JS; Meek, RA; Egerton-Warburton, D (28 September 2015). "Drugs for the treatment of nausea and vomiting in adults in the emergency department setting". The Cochrane database of systematic reviews. 9: CD010106. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD010106.pub2. PMID 26411330.
  24. ^ Helena Britt; Fahridin, S (September 2007). "Presentations of nausea and vomiting" (PDF). Aust Fam Physician. 36 (9): 673–784. PMID 17885697.
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