Food history

Food history is an interdisciplinary field that examines the history of food and nutrition, and the cultural, economic, environmental, and sociological impacts of food. Food history is considered distinct from the more traditional field of culinary history, which focuses on the origin and recreation of specific recipes.

The first journal in the field, Petits Propos Culinaires, was launched in 1979 and the first conference on the subject was the 1981 Oxford Food Symposium.

Middle Ages (500–1500)

Main article: Medieval cuisine

During the Middle Ages, the food people ate was controlled by the seasons, geography, and the Church. Most food was homegrown.

Food in the Middle Ages was entirely limited to what the land could provide. Poor families primarily consumed grains and vegetables in the form of stew, soup, or pottage, and anything grown on their own small plots of land. They were unable to afford luxury items, like spices, and were not allowed to hunt deer, boar, or rabbits like members of the noble class could. The staple items of a lower-class diet included rye or barley bread, stews, local dairy products, cheaper meats like beef, pork or lamb, fish if there was access to freshwater, vegetables and herbs grown at home, fruit from local trees and bushes, nuts, and honey.

The upper class and nobility had better food and diet than that the lower classes, but food was eaten in small portions. Meals were laid out with many different colors and flavors—a very different experience from those in the lower class. Smaller portion sizes developed around this time due to various cultural influences, and these large, table-long meals were essentially picked at by the nobility. Foods were highly spiced, and many of these were expensively imported, or bought back from outside of Europe. The Middle Ages diet of the upper class and nobility included manchet bread, a variety of meats like venison, pork, and lamb, fish and shellfish, spices, cheese, fruits, and a limited number of vegetables.

A medieval baker with his apprentice.

Families made do with what they could, primarily cooking over an open fire, in a cauldron or on a spit. Their ovens were typically outside of the home, and made on top of clay or turf.

As food consumption was controlled by geography and availability, it was also governed by the Church. Many fasts occurred throughout the year, and the longest was that of Lent. There were designated days in which people could not eat meat or fish, but this did not affect the poor very much because of their already-lacking food options. The Church also influenced people to have feasts throughout the year, including on Christmas and for lesser holidays. The noble and upper classes participated in these extravagant feasts, as they often followed a fasting period.

Potato

Main article: History of the potato

The potato was first domesticated in the region of modern-day southern Peru and extreme northwestern Bolivia. It has since spread around the world and become a staple crop in many countries.

Global production of potatoes in 2008

Some believe that the introduction of the potato was responsible for a quarter or more of the growth in Old World population and urbanization between 1700 and 1900. Following the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire, the Spanish introduced the potato to Europe in the second half of the 16th century, as part of the Columbian exchange. The staple was subsequently conveyed by European mariners to territories and ports throughout the world. The potato was slow to be adopted by distrustful European farmers, but soon enough it became an important food staple and field crop that played a major role in the 19th century European population boom. However, lack of genetic diversity, due to the very limited number of varieties initially introduced, left the crop vulnerable to disease. In 1845, a plant disease known as late blight, caused by the fungus-like oomycete Phytophthora infestans, spread rapidly through the poorer communities of western Ireland as well as parts of the Scottish Highlands, resulting in the crop failures that led to the Great Irish Famine.

Rice

Main article: Rice

Rice comes from the seasonal plant Oryza sativa, and has been cultivated since about 6000 BCE. The principal rice-producing countries are in east and south Asia. The average amount of rice cultivated every year ranges between 800 billion and 950 billion pounds. Muslims brought rice to Sicily in the 9th century. After the 15th century, rice spread throughout Italy and then France, later spreading to all the continents during the age of European exploration. As a cereal grain, today it is the most widely consumed staple food worldwide.

Iberian Peninsula

The Portuguese and Spanish Empires opened up sea trade routes that linked food exchange across the world. Under Phillip II, Catholic cuisine elements inadvertently helped transform the cuisine of the Americas, Buddhists, Hindus, and Islamic cuisines of the South Eastern Asian region. In Goa, the Portuguese were encouraged by the Crown to marry local women following their conversion. This integration led to mixed cuisine between Portugal and Western India. The Portuguese brought round raised loaves, using wheat shipped from Northern India, as well as pickled pork. The pork was pickled in wine or vinegar with garlic (carne de vinha d’alhos) tied to Portuguese cuisine that later became vindaloo.

Jesuits

The Jesuits' influence on cuisine differed from country to country. They sold maize and cassava to plantations in Angola that would later grant provisions to slave traders. They exported sugar and cacao from the Americas to Europe, and in southern parts of the Americas, they dried leaves of the local mate plant that would compete with coffee, tea, and chocolate as the favored hot beverage in Europe. Despite mate’s popularity and competition against chocolate, the Jesuits were the leading producers and promoters of chocolate. Using indigenous labor in Guatemala, they shipped it across the world to Southeast Asia, Spain, and Italy. Chocolate’s popularity was also in part to the theological consensus that, because it was not considered a food, it could be eaten while fasting. It was thought to have lust-reducing effects applicable to many nuns and monks at the time.

The Jesuits introduced several foods and cooking techniques to Japan: deep frying (tempura), cakes and confectionery (kasutera, confetti), as well as the bread still called by the Iberian name pan.

Sugar

Main article: History of sugar

There were many innovations in sugarcane processing.

Early modern Europe

Grain and livestock have long been the most important agricultural products in France and England. After 1700, innovative farmers experimented with new techniques to increase yield and looked into new products such as hops, oilseed rape, artificial grasses, vegetables, fruit, dairy foods, commercial poultry, rabbits, and freshwater fish.

Sugar began as an upper-class luxury product, but by 1700 Caribbean sugar plantations worked by African slaves had expanded production, and it was much more widely available. By 1800 sugar was a staple of working-class diets. For them, it symbolized increasing economic freedom and status.

Significance of Islamic cuisine in Eurasia

Main article: Islamic cuisine

Impact of religion on cuisines

The three most widespread religions (Christianity, Buddhism, and Islam) developed their own distinct recipes, cultures, and practices around food. All three follow two main principles around food: "the theory of the culinary cosmos and the principle of hierarchy." There is a third principle that involved sacrifice. Over the years, religious and societal views on killing living things for religious purposes have changed, and it is no longer considered a major principle.

Judaism

Main article: Jewish cuisine

Jews have eaten many different types of food that were no different than the cuisine of their Gentile neighbors. However, Jewish cuisine is influenced by Jewish dietary laws, kashrut along with other religious requirements. For example, creating a fire was forbidden on Shabbat which led to inspiration for slow-cooked Sabbath stews.

Main article: Sephardi Jewish cuisine

Sepharic Jews were expelled from Iberia in 1492 and migrated to North Africa and the Ottoman lands, blending Iberian cuisine with local cuisine.

Main article: Ashkenazi Jewish cuisine

Many Ashkenazi Jews from Europe and Russia were very poor and their food reflects that.

Main article: Jewish-American cuisine

Many foods considered Jewish in the United States, such as bagels, knishes and borscht are Eastern European Ashkenazidishes. Gentiles also ate the above foods widely throughout Eastern Europe as well.

Christianity and sugar

Main article: History of sugar

The rise of global exploration by the Spanish and Portuguese aided the growth and expansion of the sugar trade. Catholic missionaries played a major role in sugar processing technology. By late seventeenth century, as plantations within the Americas continued to grow, Brazil became the dominant sugar producer.

Due to the increase of sugar cultivation, obtaining sugar became easier and more affordable. Thus, Europeans could now enjoy Islamic-inspired confectionary goods that were previously costly to produce.

The Jesuits were leading producers of chocolate, obtaining it from the Amazon jungle and Guatemala and shipping it across the world to Southeast Asia, Spain and Italy. They introduced Mesoamerican techniques to Europe for processing and preparing chocolate. Fermented cocoa beans had to ground on heated grindstones to prevent producing oily chocolate, a process that was foreign to many Europeans. As a beverage, chocolate remained largely within the Catholic world as it was not considered a food to the church and thus could be enjoyed during fasting.

19th century

Laborers in Western Europe in the 18th century ate bread and gruel, often in a soup with greens and lentils, a little bacon, and occasionally potato or a bit of cheese. They washed it down with beer (water usually was too contaminated), and a sip of milk. Three fourths of the food was derived from plants. Meat was much more attractive, but very expensive. By 1870 the West European diet was at about 16 kilos per person per year of meat, rising to 50 kilos by 1914, and 77 kilos in 2010. Milk, and cheese, was seldom in the diet-- even in the early 20th century, it was still uncommon in Mediterranean diets.

In the immigrant neighborhoods of fast-growing American industrial cities, housewives purchased ready-made food through street peddlers, hucksters, push carts, and small shops operated from private homes. This opened the way for the rapid entry of entirely new items such as pizza, spaghetti with meatballs, bagels, hoagies, pretzels, and pierogies into American eating habits, and firmly established fast food in the American culinary experience.

20th century

In the first half of the 20th century there were two world wars, which in may places resulted in rationing and hunger; sometimes the starvation of the civilian populations was used as a powerful new weapon. In Germany during World War I the rationing system in urban areas virtually collapsed, with people eating animal fodder to survive the Turnip Winter. In Allied countries, meat was diverted first to the soldiers, then to urgent civilian needs in Italy, Britain, France and Greece. Meat production was stretched to the limit in the United States, Australia, New Zealand, Canada and Argentina, with oceanic shipping closely controlled by the British.

In the first years of peace after the war ended in 1918, most of eastern and central Europe suffered severe food shortages. The American Relief Administration (ARA) was set up under the American wartime "food czar" Herbert Hoover, and was charged with providing emergency food rations across Central and Eastern Europe. The ARA fed millions, including the inhabitants of Germany and the Soviet Union. After U.S. government funding for the ARA expired in the summer of 1919, the ARA became a private organization, raising millions of dollars from private donors. Under the auspices of the ARA, the European Children's Fund fed millions of starving children.

The 1920s saw the introduction of new foodstuffs, especially fruit, transported from around the globe. After the World War many new food products became available to the typical household, with branded foods advertised for their convenience. Now instead of an experienced cook spending hours on difficult custards and puddings, the housewife could purchase instant foods in jars, or powders that could be quickly mixed. Wealthier households now had ice boxes or electric refrigerators, which made for better storage and the convenience of buying in larger quantities.

During World War II, Nazi Germany tried to feed its population by seizing food supplies from occupied countries, and deliberately cutting off food supplies to Jews, Poles, Russians and the Dutch.

As part of the Marshall Plan in 1948-1950, the United States provided taking logical expertise and financing for high-productivity large-scale agribusiness operations in postwar Europe. Poultry was a favorite choice, with the rapid expansion in production, a sharp fall in prices, and widespread acceptance of the many ways to serve chicken.

The Green Revolution was a technological breakthrough in plant productivity that increased agricultural production worldwide, particularly in the developing world. Research began in the 1930s and dramatic improvements in output became important in the late 1960s, and continued into the 21st century. The initiatives resulted in the adoption of new technologies, including:

"new, high-yielding varieties (HYVs) of cereals, especially dwarf wheats and rices, in association with chemical fertilizers and agro-chemicals, and with controlled water-supply (usually involving irrigation) and new methods of cultivation, including mechanization. All of these together were seen as a 'package of practices' to supersede 'traditional' technology and to be adopted as a whole."

See also

• Food studies
• List of ancient dishes
• List of historical cuisines
• List of food and beverage museums
• Timeline of food

Further reading

• Collingham, Lizzie. Taste of War: World War II and the Battle for Food (2013)
• Gremillion, Kristen J. Ancestral Appetites: Food in Prehistory (Cambridge UP, 2011) 188 pages; explores the processes of dietary adaptation in prehistory that contributed to the diversity of global foodways.
• Grew, Raymond. Food in Global History, Westview Press, 2000
• Heiser Charles B. Seed to civilisation. The story of food (Harvard UP, 1990)
• Kiple, Kenneth F. and Kriemhild Coneè Ornelas,eds. The Cambridge World History of Food, (2 vol, 2000).
• Katz, Solomon ed. The Encyclopedia of Food and Culture (Scribner, 2003)
• Lacey, Richard. Hard to swallow: a brief history of food (1994) online free
• Le, Stephen (2018). 100 Million Years of Food: What Our Ancestors Ate and Why It Matters Today. Picador. ISBN 978-1250117885.
• Mintz, Sidney. Tasting Food, Tasting Freedom: Excursions into Eating, Power, and the Past, (1997).
• Nestle, Marion. Food Politics: How the Food Industry Influences Nutrition and Health (2nd ed 2007).
• Parasecoli, Fabio & Peter Scholliers, eds. A Cultural History of Food, 6 volumes (Berg Publishers, 2012)
• Pilcher, Jeffrey M. ed. The Oxford Handbook of Food History (2017). Online review
• Pilcher, Jeffrey M. Food in World History (2017) advanced survey
• Ritchie, Carson I.A. Food in civilization: how history has been affected by human tastes (1981) online free

Foods and meals

• Anderson, Heather Arndt. Breakfast: A History (2014) 238pp
• Blake, Michael. Maize for the Gods: Unearthing the 9,000-Year History of Corn (2015).
• Elias, Megan. Lunch: A History (2014) 204pp
• Kindstedt, Paul. Cheese and Culture: A History of Cheese and its Place in Western Civilization (2012)
• Kurlansky, Mark. Milk!: A 10,000-Year Food Fracas (2018). excerpt
• Kurlansky, Mark. Salt: A World History (2003) excerpt
• Mintz, Sidney. Sweetness and Power: The Place of Sugar in Modern History (1986)
• Pettigrew, Jane, and Bruce Richardson. A Social History of Tea: Tea's Influence on Commerce, Culture & Community (2015).
• Reader, John. Propitious Esculent: The Potato in World History (2008), 315pp a standard scholarly history
• Salaman, R.N. The history and social influence of the potato (1949)
• Valenze, Deborah,. Milk: A Local and Global History (Yale UP, 2012)

Historiography

• Claflin, Kyri and Peter Scholliers, eds. Writing Food History, a Global Perspective (Berg, 2012)
• Duffett, Rachel, and Ina Zweiniger-Bargielowska, eds. Food and War in Twentieth Century Europe (2011) excerpt
• Pilcher, Jeffrey M. "The embodied imagination in recent writings on food history." American Historical Review 121#3 (2016): 861-887.
• Pilcher, Jeffrey M., ed. Food History: Critical and Primary Sources (2015) 4 vol; reprints 76 primary and secondary sources.
• Scholliers, Peter. " Twenty-five Years of Studying un Phénomène Social Total: Food History Writing on Europe in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries," Food, Culture & Society: An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research (2007) 10#3 pp 449-471 https://doi.org/10.2752/155280107X239881

Asia

• Achaya, Kongandra Thammu. A historical dictionary of Indian food (New Delhi: Oxford UP, 1998).
• Cheung, Sidney, and David Y.H. Wu. The globalisation of Chinese food (Routledge, 2014).
• Chung, Hae Kyung, et al. "Understanding Korean food culture from Korean paintings." Journal of Ethnic Foods 3#1 (2016): 42-50.
• Cwiertka, Katarzyna Joanna. Modern Japanese cuisine: Food, power and national identity (Reaktion Books, 2006).
• Kim, Soon Hee, et al. "Korean diet: characteristics and historical background." Journal of Ethnic Foods 3.1 (2016): 26-31.
• Kushner, Barak. Slurp! a Social and Culinary History of Ramen: Japan's Favorite Noodle Soup (2014) a scholarly cultural history over 1000 years
• Simoons, Frederick J. Food in China: a cultural and historical inquiry (2014).

Europe

• Gentilcore, David. Food and Health in Early Modern Europe: Diet, Medicine and Society, 1450–1800 (Bloomsbury, 2016)
• Goldman, Wendy Z. and Donald Filtzer, eds. Food Provisioning in the Soviet Union during World War II (2015)
• Roll, Eric. The Combined Food Board. A study in wartime international planning (1956), on World War II
• Scarpellini, Emanuela. Food and Foodways in Italy from 1861 to the Present (2014)

Great Britain

• Addyman, Mary et al. eds. Food, Drink, and the Written Word in Britain, 1820–1945 (Taylor & Francis, 2017).
• Brears, P. Cooking and Dining in Medieval England (2008)
• Burnett, John. Plenty and want: a social history of diet in England from 1815 to the present day (2nd ed. 1979). A standard scholarly history.
• Collins, E.J.T. "Dietary change and cereal consumption in Britain in the nineteenth century." Agricultural History Review (1975) 23#2, 97-115.
• Gazeley, I. and Newell, A. "Urban working-class food consumption and nutrition in Britain in 1904" Economic History Review. (2014). http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ehr.12065/pdf.
• Harris, Bernard, Roderick Floud, and Sok Chul Hong. "How many calories? Food availability in England and Wales in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries". Research in economic history. (2015). 111-191.
• Hartley, Dorothy. Food In England: A complete guide to the food that makes us who we are (Hachette UK, 2014).
• Meredith, D. and Oxley, D. "Food and fodder: feeding England, 1700-1900." Past and Present (2014). (2014). 222:163-214.
• Oddy, D. " Food, drink and nutrition" in F.M.L. Thompson, ed., The Cambridge social history of Britain, 1750-1950. Volume 2. People and their environment (1990). pp. 2:251-78.
• Otter, Chris. "The British Nutrition Transition and its Histories", History Compass 10#11 (2012): pp. 812-825, [DOI]: 10.1111/hic3.12001
• Panayi, Panikos. Spicing Up Britain: The Multicultural History of British Food (2010)
• Spencer, Colin. British Food: An Extraordinary Thousand Years of History (2007).
• Woolgar. C.N. The Culture of Food in England, 1200–1500 (2016). 260 pp.,

United States

• Pendergrast, Mark. For God, Country, and Coca-Cola: The Definitive History of the Great American Soft Drink and the Company That Makes It (2013)
• Shapiro, Laura. Something From the Oven: Reinventing Dinner in 1950s America, Viking Adult 2004, ISBN 0-670-87154-0
• Smith, Andrew F. ed. The Oxford companion to American food and drink (2007)
• Veit, Helen Zoe, ed. Food in the Civil War Era: The North (Michigan State University Press, 2014)
• Veit, Helen Zoe. Modern Food, Moral Food: Self-Control, Science, and the Rise of Modern American Eating in the Early Twentieth Century (University of North Carolina Press, 2013)
• Wallach, Jennifer Jensen. How America Eats: A social history of U.S. food and culture (2014) 256256pp
• Williams, Elizabeth M. New Orleans: A Food Biography (AltaMira Press, 2012).

Journals

• Food and Foodways. Explorations in the History and Culture of Human Nourishment
• Food, Culture and Society: An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research
• Food & History, multilingual scientific journal about the history and culture of food published by the (IEHCA)

Other languages

• Montanari, Massimo, Il mondo in cucina (The world in the kitchen). Laterza, 2002 ASIN: B0055J686G
• Mintalová - Zubercová, Zora: Všetko okolo stola I.(All around the table I.), Vydavateľstvo Matice slovenskej, 2009, ISBN 978-80-89208-94-4

External links

• University of Houston Digital Library: 1850-1860's Hotel and Restaurant Menu Collection images
• [1]: FOST: Social & Cultural Food Studies (VUB's research unit in food history)
• Spanish Food History Articles: 27 most relevant products and Timeline by Enrique García Ballesteros
• "Culinary History". NYPL Recommendations: Best of the Web. USA: New York Public Library.
• Explained With Maps - History of World Food (Documentary Video)