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There were at least several incidents of '''anti-Chinese violence in Washington''', a [[United States territory]] and later, a [[U.S. state]], which occurred during the 19th, 20th and 21st century. In the 19<sup>th</sup> century, the [[Chinese Exclusion Act|Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882]] created hostile attitudes towards the Chinese people residing in the U.S.<ref name=":7" /> The act sparked a wave of anti-Chinese riots and murders occurring in Washington, such as the [[Tacoma riot of 1885|Tacoma Riot of 1885]], the [[Rock Springs massacre]] and the [[Hells Canyon massacre]] in 1887.<ref name=gardner>Gardner, A. Dudley. [http://www.wwcc.wy.edu/wyo_hist/ev.wyoming_and_the_chinese.htm Wyoming and the Chinese] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071009111207/http://www.wwcc.wy.edu/wyo_hist/ev.wyoming_and_the_chinese.htm |date=2007-10-09 }}, "Wyoming History," Western Wyoming Community College. Retrieved 12 March 2007</ref> There were riots and mob actions in [[Issaquah, Washington|Issaquah]] (then known as Squak or Squak Valley) and [[Seattle]] which resulted in at least four people being killed and extensive property damage.<ref name=tibbets>Long, Priscilla. "[http://www.historylink.org/essays/output.cfm?file_id=2746 White and Indian hop pickers attack Chinese]," ''The Online Encyclopedia of Washington State History'', 1 July 2000. Retrieved 12 March 2007.</ref><ref name=crowley>Crowley, Walt. "[http://www.historylink.org/essays/output.cfm?file_id=1057 Anti-Chinese Activism - Seattle]," ''The Online Encyclopedia of Washington State History'', May 2, 1999. Retrieved 12 March 2007.</ref> Anti-Chinese violence continued throughout the 20<sup>th</sup> century with the [[Killing of Vincent Chin|murder of Vincent Chin]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021|title=Vincent Chin is murdered|url=https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/vincent-chin-is-murdered-detroit|url-status=live|access-date=15 May 2021|website=HISTORY}}</ref> The [[COVID-19 pandemic|Covid-19 pandemic]] heightened anti-Asian violence in the 21<sup>st</sup> century, with specific incidences of verbal and physical assault.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Woodman|first=C|date=2021|title=Anti-Asian Hate Crimes On The Rise In Washington|url=https://patch.com/washington/seattle/anti-asian-hate-crimes-rise-washington|url-status=live|access-date=16 April 2021}}</ref>
There were at least several incidents of '''anti-Chinese violence in Washington''', a [[United States territory]] and later, a [[U.S. state]], which occurred during the 19th, 20th and 21st century. In the 19<sup>th</sup> century, the [[Chinese Exclusion Act|Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882]] created hostile attitudes towards the Chinese people residing in the U.S.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Railton|first=B|title=The Chinese Exclusion Act: What It Can Teach Us About America|publisher=Palgrave Pivot|year=2013|isbn=978-1-137-33909-6|location=New York|pages=12}}</ref> The act sparked a wave of anti-Chinese riots and murders occurring in Washington, such as the [[Tacoma riot of 1885|Tacoma Riot of 1885]], the [[Rock Springs massacre]] and the [[Hells Canyon massacre]] in 1887.<ref name=gardner>Gardner, A. Dudley. [http://www.wwcc.wy.edu/wyo_hist/ev.wyoming_and_the_chinese.htm Wyoming and the Chinese] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071009111207/http://www.wwcc.wy.edu/wyo_hist/ev.wyoming_and_the_chinese.htm |date=2007-10-09 }}, "Wyoming History," Western Wyoming Community College. Retrieved 12 March 2007</ref> There were riots and mob actions in [[Issaquah, Washington|Issaquah]] (then known as Squak or Squak Valley) and [[Seattle]] which resulted in at least four people being killed and extensive property damage.<ref name=tibbets>Long, Priscilla. "[http://www.historylink.org/essays/output.cfm?file_id=2746 White and Indian hop pickers attack Chinese]," ''The Online Encyclopedia of Washington State History'', 1 July 2000. Retrieved 12 March 2007.</ref><ref name=crowley>Crowley, Walt. "[http://www.historylink.org/essays/output.cfm?file_id=1057 Anti-Chinese Activism - Seattle]," ''The Online Encyclopedia of Washington State History'', May 2, 1999. Retrieved 12 March 2007.</ref> Anti-Chinese violence continued throughout the 20<sup>th</sup> century with the [[Killing of Vincent Chin|murder of Vincent Chin]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|date=2021|title=Vincent Chin is murdered|url=https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/vincent-chin-is-murdered-detroit|url-status=live|access-date=15 May 2021|website=HISTORY}}</ref> The [[COVID-19 pandemic|Covid-19 pandemic]] heightened anti-Asian violence in the 21<sup>st</sup> century, with specific incidences of verbal and physical assault.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|last=Woodman|first=C|date=2021|title=Anti-Asian Hate Crimes On The Rise In Washington|url=https://patch.com/washington/seattle/anti-asian-hate-crimes-rise-washington|url-status=live|access-date=16 April 2021}}</ref>


== Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 ==
== Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 ==
[[File:Chineseexclusionact.JPG|thumb|A page from the [[Chinese Exclusion Act]] document.]]
[[File:Chineseexclusionact.JPG|thumb|A page from the [[Chinese Exclusion Act]] document.]]
The Chinese Exclusion Act was enacted by [[Chester A. Arthur|President Chester A. Arthur]], on May 6, 1882 in the [[Supreme Court of the United States]], [[Washington, D.C.|Washington D.C]].<ref>Oakley, D. (2020). Editor's Introduction. ''City & Community'', ''19''(2), 285-287. doi: 10.1111/cico.12499</ref> The law regulated forced immigration of Chinese labourers, prohibiting Chinese prostitutes and people who are convicted or still serving their sentences for crimes in their native countries.<ref name=":7">Railton, B. (2013). ''The Chinese Exclusion Act: What It Can Teach Us about America'' (1st ed.). Palgrave Pivot., 12.</ref> The government of the United States implemented this act as they feared that Chinese immigrants were outperforming local workers such as European Americans.<ref>Stanton, R. (2020). A Consequential Closing THE CHINESE EXCLUSION ACT OF 1882: The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 prevented the immigration of Chinese people into the United States from the late 1880s until the early 1940s, under the premise that "the coming of Chinese laborers to this country endangers the good order of certain localities within the territory thereof" That act--the first in the nation to place a ban on an entire ethnic and national identity--contributed to a climate of anti-Chinese sentiment in Michigan and left lingering consequences in towns both large and small. ''Michigan History Magazine'', (Vol 105, 2).</ref> The act was regarded as the first to prevent all people of a race from immigrating to the U.S.<ref name=":0">Gyory, A. (1998). ''Closing the Gate: Race, Politics, and the Chinese Exclusion Act'' (1st ed.). The University of North Carolina Press. 238.</ref>
The Chinese Exclusion Act was enacted by [[Chester A. Arthur|President Chester A. Arthur]], on May 6, 1882 in the [[Supreme Court of the United States]], [[Washington, D.C.|Washington D.C]].<ref>Oakley, D. (2020). Editor's Introduction. ''City & Community'', ''19''(2), 285-287. doi: 10.1111/cico.12499</ref> The law regulated forced immigration of Chinese labourers, prohibiting Chinese prostitutes and people who are convicted or still serving their sentences for crimes in their native countries.<ref name=":0" /> The government of the United States implemented this act as they feared that Chinese immigrants were outperforming local workers such as European Americans.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Stanton|first=R|date=2020|title=A Consequential Closing THE CHINESE EXCLUSION ACT OF 1882: The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 prevented the immigration of Chinese people into the United States from the late 1880s until the early 1940s, under the premise that "the coming of Chinese laborers to this country endangers the good order of certain localities within the territory thereof" That act--the first in the nation to place a ban on an entire ethnic and national identity--contributed to a climate of anti-Chinese sentiment in Michigan and left lingering consequences in towns both large and small.|work=Michigan History Magazine|url=}}</ref> The act was regarded as the first to prevent all people of a race from immigrating to the U.S.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Gyory|first=A|title=Closing the Gate: Race, Politics, and the Chinese Exclusion Act|publisher=The University of North Carolina Press|year=1998|pages=238}}</ref>


=== Background ===
=== Background ===
Chinese immigration to the United States had a significant increase during the [[California Gold Rush]] in 1848.<ref>Norton, Henry K. (1924). The Story of California From the Earliest Days to the Present. Chicago: A. C. McClurg & Co. pp. 283–296. Archived from the original on 2008-05-09.</ref> The debt of the [[Opium Wars|Opium Wars (1839-42, 1856-60]]), as well as floods and droughts, caused many Chinese peasants to leave China in the hopes of finding work internationally.<ref name=":9">''Chinese Exclusion Act''. HISTORY. (2019). Retrieved 18 May 2021, from <nowiki>https://www.history.com/topics/immigration/chinese-exclusion-act-1882</nowiki>.</ref> The discovery of gold in the [[Sacramento Valley]] of [[California]] in the United States became a popular area for Chinese immigration. This discovery led to many Chinese people joining the California Gold Rush.<ref name=":9" />
Chinese immigration to the United States had a significant increase during the [[California Gold Rush]] in 1848.<ref>Norton, Henry K. (1924). The Story of California From the Earliest Days to the Present. Chicago: A. C. McClurg & Co. pp. 283–296. Archived from the original on 2008-05-09.</ref> The debt of the [[Opium Wars|Opium Wars (1839-42, 1856-60]]), as well as floods and droughts, caused many Chinese peasants to leave China in the hopes of finding work internationally.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|date=2019|title=Chinese Exclusion Act|url=https://www.history.com/topics/immigration/chinese-exclusion-act-1882|url-status=live|access-date=18 May 2021|website=HISTORY}}</ref> The discovery of gold in the [[Sacramento Valley]] of [[California]] in the United States became a popular area for Chinese immigration. This discovery led to many Chinese people joining the California Gold Rush.<ref name=":6" />


=== Legacy ===
=== Legacy ===
Throughout the 19th century, the Chinese continued to face discrimination in the United States, particularly by the government. [[United States Congress|Congress]] approved the [[Scott Act (1888)]] and the [[Geary Act|Geary Act (1892)]] to restrict Chinese immigration to the United States. In 1902, Congress made the Chinese Exclusion Act a permanent policy.<ref name=":1">Bodenner, C. (2006). ''Chinese Exclusion Act.” Issues & Controversies in American History'' [Ebook] (pp. 6-7). New York: Infobase Publishing. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://web.archive.org/web/20171208122340/http://www.ndhs.org/s/1012/images/editor_documents/library/issues_and_controversies_in_american_history_-_chinese_exclusion_act.pdf?sessionid=7aa0a591-8d60-4578-ba02-e7cfe36e74ab&cc=1</nowiki></ref> The government continued to target the Chinese with discriminatory laws and violence. The [[Jim Crow laws|"Jim Crow" laws]], implemented to marginalize African Americans, also impacted the rights of the Chinese people. This furthered violence towards the Chinese people, leading to the Anti-Chinese Hysteria of 1885-86. The most significant incident of this period was the [[Rock Springs massacre|Rock Springs Massacre]] in September 1885. The massacre initiated further violence in areas such as [[Seattle]], [[Tacoma, Washington|Tacoma]] and [[Washington Territory|Washington territory]].<ref name=":1" /> Congress repealed the Chinese Exclusion Act was repealed by in the 1940s due to the alliance of the U.S. and China during [[World War II]]; however, Chinese immigration was restricted to a quota of 105 Chinese per year.<ref name=":0" />
Throughout the 19th century, the Chinese continued to face discrimination in the United States, particularly by the government. [[United States Congress|Congress]] approved the [[Scott Act (1888)]] and the [[Geary Act|Geary Act (1892)]] to restrict Chinese immigration to the United States. In 1902, Congress made the Chinese Exclusion Act a permanent policy.<ref name=":1">Bodenner, C. (2006). ''Chinese Exclusion Act.” Issues & Controversies in American History'' [Ebook] (pp. 6-7). New York: Infobase Publishing. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://web.archive.org/web/20171208122340/http://www.ndhs.org/s/1012/images/editor_documents/library/issues_and_controversies_in_american_history_-_chinese_exclusion_act.pdf?sessionid=7aa0a591-8d60-4578-ba02-e7cfe36e74ab&cc=1</nowiki></ref><ref name=":1" />The government continued to target the Chinese with discriminatory laws and violence. The [[Jim Crow laws|"Jim Crow" laws]], implemented to marginalize African Americans, also impacted the rights of the Chinese people. This furthered violence towards the Chinese people, leading to the Anti-Chinese Hysteria of 1885-86. The most significant incident of this period was the [[Rock Springs massacre|Rock Springs Massacre]] in September 1885. The massacre initiated further violence in areas such as [[Seattle]], [[Tacoma, Washington|Tacoma]] and [[Washington Territory|Washington territory]].<ref name=":1" /> Congress repealed the Chinese Exclusion Act was repealed by in the 1940s due to the alliance of the U.S. and China during [[World War II]]; however, Chinese immigration was restricted to a quota of 105 Chinese per year.<ref name=":5" />


== Violence in the 19th century ==
== Violence in the 19th century ==
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The [[Tacoma riot of 1885|Tacoma Riot of 1885]] took place on November 3, 1885 and saw the deliberate removal of the Chinese people from Tacoma, Washington. On November 1, 1885, the anti-Chinese organization led by Mayor Jacob Weisbach issued a deadline for all 700 Chinese men and women to leave [[Tacoma, Washington|Tacoma]]. Approximately 150 people left before the deadline. On the morning of November 3, the vigilante group led by 500 of the [[Committee of Fifteen]] attacked and removed Chinese workers from homes and workplaces. Three days later, two Chinese settlements, including approximately 35 Chinese businesses and homes, were burned. After these events, no Chinese people remained in the city.<ref name=":2">Englesberg, P. (2014). Tacoma Anti-Chinese Riot of 1885. In ''Asian Americans: An Encyclopedia of Social, Cultural, Economic, and Political History'' (Vol. 3, pp. 1063).</ref>
The [[Tacoma riot of 1885|Tacoma Riot of 1885]] took place on November 3, 1885 and saw the deliberate removal of the Chinese people from Tacoma, Washington. On November 1, 1885, the anti-Chinese organization led by Mayor Jacob Weisbach issued a deadline for all 700 Chinese men and women to leave [[Tacoma, Washington|Tacoma]]. Approximately 150 people left before the deadline. On the morning of November 3, the vigilante group led by 500 of the [[Committee of Fifteen]] attacked and removed Chinese workers from homes and workplaces. Three days later, two Chinese settlements, including approximately 35 Chinese businesses and homes, were burned. After these events, no Chinese people remained in the city.<ref name=":2">Englesberg, P. (2014). Tacoma Anti-Chinese Riot of 1885. In ''Asian Americans: An Encyclopedia of Social, Cultural, Economic, and Political History'' (Vol. 3, pp. 1063).</ref>


On February 21, 1885, Mayor Jacob Weisbach ordered a meeting of 900 citizens to discuss ways to expel the Chinese population of Tacoma. Many other groups such as business owners and laborers gathered in the city to express their desire to expel the Chinese community which included a reading of a chapter of the [[Knights of Labor]].<ref name=":10">''Expulsion''. The Tacoma Method. Retrieved 18 May 2021, from <nowiki>https://www.tacomamethod.com/expulsion</nowiki>.</ref> A popular slogan used to recruit people to the Knights of Labor was "the Chinese must go”. Despite the widespread hostility towards the Chinese population of Tacoma from community notables and the media, a few leaders spoke out against the force and violence aimed at the Chinese and advocated for tolerance. The most significant of these figures was U.S. Attorney William H. White, who, after the riot, charged 27 people involved in the riot to deprive the Chinese of equal protection of the laws. The most notable of these people included Mayor Weisbach, Probate Judge [[James Wickersham]] and Fire Department Chief Jacob Ralph.<ref name=":2" />
On February 21, 1885, Mayor Jacob Weisbach ordered a meeting of 900 citizens to discuss ways to expel the Chinese population of Tacoma. Many other groups such as business owners and laborers gathered in the city to express their desire to expel the Chinese community which included a reading of a chapter of the [[Knights of Labor]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Expulsion|url=https://www.tacomamethod.com/expulsion|url-status=live|access-date=18 May 2021|website=The Tacoma Method}}</ref> A popular slogan used to recruit people to the Knights of Labor was "the Chinese must go”. Despite the widespread hostility towards the Chinese population of Tacoma from community notables and the media, a few leaders spoke out against the force and violence aimed at the Chinese and advocated for tolerance. The most significant of these figures was U.S. Attorney William H. White, who, after the riot, charged 27 people involved in the riot to deprive the Chinese of equal protection of the laws. The most notable of these people included Mayor Weisbach, Probate Judge [[James Wickersham]] and Fire Department Chief Jacob Ralph.<ref name=":2" />


==== Legacy ====
==== Legacy ====
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=== Hells Canyon Massacre ===
=== Hells Canyon Massacre ===
The [[Hells Canyon massacre|Hells Canyon Massacre]] (also known as the Snake River Massacre) took place on May 25, 1887, in [[Hells Canyon|Hells Canyon,]] on the edge of [[eastern Oregon]] and [[eastern Washington]]. The massacre involved the ambush, robbing and murder of 34 Chinese gold miners by seven white horse gang members.<ref>Englesberg, P. (2014). Hells Canyon Massacre (1887). In ''Asian Americans: An Encyclopedia of Social, Cultural, Economic, and Political History'' (Vol. 3, pp. 490-491)</ref> The bodies of the Chinese gold miners were brutally mutilated and dumped in the Snake River. Their bodies were found approximately a month later by other miners and reported to [[Lewiston, Idaho|Lewiston]] authorities.<ref name=":3">Oregon Scout. (1888). The Chinese Murderers. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.oregonhistoryproject.org/articles/historical-records/news-article-the-chinese-murderers/#.YIE-VhQzZAc</nowiki></ref>The estimated amount of gold stolen was between $4,000 to $50,000.<ref>The New York Times. (1995). Files Found in Oregon Detail Massacre of Chinese, p. 30. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.nytimes.com/1995/08/20/us/files-found-in-oregon-detail-massacre-of-chinese.html</nowiki></ref>
The [[Hells Canyon massacre|Hells Canyon Massacre]] (also known as the Snake River Massacre) took place on May 25, 1887, in [[Hells Canyon|Hells Canyon,]] on the edge of [[eastern Oregon]] and [[eastern Washington]]. The massacre involved the ambush, robbing and murder of 34 Chinese gold miners by seven white horse gang members.<ref>Englesberg, P. (2014). Hells Canyon Massacre (1887). In ''Asian Americans: An Encyclopedia of Social, Cultural, Economic, and Political History'' (Vol. 3, pp. 490-491)</ref> The bodies of the Chinese gold miners were brutally mutilated and dumped in the Snake River. Their bodies were found approximately a month later by other miners and reported to [[Lewiston, Idaho|Lewiston]] authorities.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|date=1888|title=The Chinese Murders|url=https://www.oregonhistoryproject.org/articles/historical-records/news-article-the-chinese-murderers/#.YIE-VhQzZAc|url-status=live|website=Oregon Scout}}</ref>The estimated amount of gold stolen was between $4,000 to $50,000.<ref>{{Cite news|date=1995|title=Files Found in Oregon Detail Massacre of Chinese|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/08/20/us/files-found-in-oregon-detail-massacre-of-chinese.html}}</ref>


A gang member, Frank Vaughn, confessed to the crime in April 1888. He revealed the involvement of Bruce Evans, Charley Canfield and C.O. LaRue, which led to their arrest on March 23, 1888. <ref>Nokes, R. (2006). ''"A Most Daring Outrage: Murders at Chinese Massacre Cove, 1887"'' [Ebook] (pp. 341-346). Portland: Oregon Historical Quarterly. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.ohs.org/research-and-library/oregon-historical-quarterly/upload/Nokes_A-Most-Daring-Outrage_OHQ-Fall-2006_107_3.pdf</nowiki></ref> He also stated that the three other convicted members, Robert McMillan, Carl Hughes and Hiram Maynard, were not involved, and they pleaded not guilty on September 1, 1888.<ref>Nokes, R. (2009). ''Massacred for Gold: The Chinese in Hells Canyon'' (pp. 121-140). Corvallis, Oregon: Oregon State University Press.</ref>A local rancher, George Craig, who had discovered a portion of the miner's bodies, later stated that "if they had killed 31 white men, something would have been done about it, but none of the juries knew the Chinamen or cared much about it, so they turned the men loose."<ref name=":3" />
A gang member, Frank Vaughn, confessed to the crime in April 1888. He revealed the involvement of Bruce Evans, Charley Canfield and C.O. LaRue, which led to their arrest on March 23, 1888.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Nokes|first=R|title=A Most Daring Outrage: Murders at Chinese Massacre Cove, 1887|publisher=Oregon Historical Quarterly|year=2006|location=Portland|pages=341-346}}</ref> He also stated that the three other convicted members, Robert McMillan, Carl Hughes and Hiram Maynard, were not involved, and they pleaded not guilty on September 1, 1888.<ref>Nokes, R. (2009). ''Massacred for Gold: The Chinese in Hells Canyon'' (pp. 121-140). Corvallis, Oregon: Oregon State University Press.</ref>A local rancher, George Craig, who had discovered a portion of the miner's bodies, later stated that "if they had killed 31 white men, something would have been done about it, but none of the juries knew the Chinamen or cared much about it, so they turned the men loose."<ref name=":7" />


==== Legacy ====
==== Legacy ====
To commemorate and memorialize the Hells Canyon Massacre of 1887, Richard Nokes and the Chinese Massacre Memorial Committee organized to have a helicopter deliver a 4-by-5-foot granite monument for a ceremony on June 21 and June 22, 2012, to commemorate the death of the 34 Chinese miners.<ref name=":4">Cockle, R. (2011). Massacred Chinese gold miners to receive memorial along Snake River. Retrieved 21 April 2021, from <nowiki>https://www.oregonlive.com/pacific-northwest-news/2011/11/slain_chinese_gold_miners_will.html</nowiki></ref> The monument was engraved in [[English language|English]], [[Chinese language|Chinese]] and [[Nez Perce]].<ref name=":4" />
To commemorate and memorialize the Hells Canyon Massacre of 1887, Richard Nokes and the Chinese Massacre Memorial Committee organized to have a helicopter deliver a 4-by-5-foot granite monument for a ceremony on June 21 and June 22, 2012, to commemorate the death of the 34 Chinese miners.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|last=Cockle|first=R|date=2011|title=Massacred Chinese gold miners to receive memorial along Snake River|url=https://www.oregonlive.com/pacific-northwest-news/2011/11/slain_chinese_gold_miners_will.html|url-status=live|access-date=21 April 2021|website=Oregon Live}}</ref> The monument was engraved in [[English language|English]], [[Chinese language|Chinese]] and [[Nez Perce]].<ref name=":8" />


== Anti-Asian Violence in the 20th century ==
== Anti-Asian Violence in the 20th century ==
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=== Murder of Vincent Chin ===
=== Murder of Vincent Chin ===
In June 1982, a 27-year-old Chinese American man named [[Killing of Vincent Chin|Vincent Chin]] was beaten to death by two white men in [[Detroit|Detriot, Michigan]]. Chin was mistaken as Japanese by 43-year-old [[Ronald Ebens]] and his 22-year-old stepson Michael Nitz.<ref name=":6">Little, B. (2020). ''How the 1982 Murder of Vincent Chin Ignited a Push for Asian American Rights''. HISTORY. Retrieved 15 May 2021, from <nowiki>https://www.history.com/news/vincent-chin-murder-asian-american-rights</nowiki>.</ref> The testimony stated that the dispute arose between the men over a stripper. One of the dancers in the club indicated that Ebens shouted at Chin, saying, “It’s because of you motherf***ers that we’re out of work.”<ref name=":6" /> This statement was about the decline in Detroit’s automotive manufacturing.<ref>Kai-Hwa Wang, F. (2017). ''Who is Vincent Chin? What you need to know about the 1982 killing''. NBC News. Retrieved 15 May 2021, from <nowiki>https://www.nbcnews.com/news/asian-america/who-vincent-chin-history-relevance-1982-killing-n771291</nowiki>.</ref> Chin tried to run away from the two men; however, he was unsuccessful and was beaten with a baseball bat and died in the hospital four days later from his injuries.<ref name=":6" /> On March 16, 1983, Wayne County Circuit Judge [[Charles Kaufman (judge)|Charles Kaufman]] ruled that Ebens and Nitz would receive a $3000 fine and zero prison time.<ref name=":5">Onion, A., Sullivan, M., & Mullen, M. (2021). ''Vincent Chin is murdered''. HISTORY. Retrieved 15 May 2021, from <nowiki>https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/vincent-chin-is-murdered-detroit</nowiki>.</ref>
In June 1982, a 27-year-old Chinese American man named [[Killing of Vincent Chin|Vincent Chin]] was beaten to death by two white men in [[Detroit|Detriot, Michigan]]. Chin was mistaken as Japanese by 43-year-old [[Ronald Ebens]] and his 22-year-old stepson Michael Nitz.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|last=Little|first=B|date=2020|title=How the 1982 Murder of Vincent Chin Ignited a Push for Asian American Rights|url=https://www.history.com/news/vincent-chin-murder-asian-american-rights|url-status=live|access-date=15 May 2021|website=HISTORY}}</ref>The testimony stated that the dispute arose between the men over a stripper. One of the dancers in the club indicated that Ebens shouted at Chin, saying, “It’s because of you motherf***ers that we’re out of work.”<ref name=":9" /> This statement was about the decline in Detroit’s automotive manufacturing.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Kai-Hwa Wang|first=F|date=2017|title=Who is Vincent Chin? What you need to know about the 1982 killing|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/asian-america/who-vincent-chin-history-relevance-1982-killing-n771291|url-status=live|access-date=15 May 2021|website=NBC News}}</ref> Chin tried to run away from the two men; however, he was unsuccessful and was beaten with a baseball bat and died in the hospital four days later from his injuries.<ref name=":9" /> On March 16, 1983, Wayne County Circuit Judge [[Charles Kaufman (judge)|Charles Kaufman]] ruled that Ebens and Nitz would receive a $3000 fine and zero prison time.<ref name=":3" />


== Violence in the 21st century ==
== Violence in the 21st century ==


=== Covid-19 ===
=== Covid-19 ===
The [[COVID-19|Covid-19]] pandemic saw the rising of anti-Chinese and anti-Asian hate crimes across the United States. Since March 2020, locals reported 140 hate incidents towards Asian Americans in Washington, D.C, [[Maryland]] and [[Virginia]]. [[Stop AAPI Hate]], a non-profit organization to combat anti-Asian racism, conducted this study. The most significant recorded hate crime was verbal harassment, which culminated in 68% of nationwide reports. Physical assaults were 11% of reported incidents.<ref>Fenston, J. (2021). 140 Hate Incidents Against Asian Americans Reported In D.C., Maryland, And Virginia Since Pandemic Began | DCist. Retrieved 17 April 2021, from <nowiki>https://dcist.com/story/21/03/17/asian-americans-hate-incidents-report-atlanta-dc-maryland-virginia/</nowiki></ref> Of these reports, Asian women reported racist incidents 2.3 times as often as Asian men.<ref>Leong, K., & Kuo, K. (2021). US has a long history of violence against Asian women. Retrieved 18 April 2021, from <nowiki>https://theconversation.com/us-has-a-long-history-of-violence-against-asian-women-157533</nowiki></ref> In 2019 the [[King County, Washington|King County]] Prosecutor's Office took 39 hate crimes to court; this number grew to 59 in 2020. The office stated that the increase was because of the rise in attacks on Asians and Asian-Americans.<ref name=":8">Woodman, C. (2021). Anti-Asian Hate Crimes On The Rise In Washington. Retrieved 16 April 2021, from <nowiki>https://patch.com/washington/seattle/anti-asian-hate-crimes-rise-washington</nowiki></ref>
The [[COVID-19|Covid-19]] pandemic saw the rising of anti-Chinese and anti-Asian hate crimes across the United States. Since March 2020, locals reported 140 hate incidents towards Asian Americans in Washington, D.C, [[Maryland]] and [[Virginia]]. [[Stop AAPI Hate]], a non-profit organization to combat anti-Asian racism, conducted this study. The most significant recorded hate crime was verbal harassment, which culminated in 68% of nationwide reports. Physical assaults were 11% of reported incidents.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Fenston|first=J|date=2021|title=140 Hate Incidents Against Asian Americans Reported In D.C., Maryland, And Virginia Since Pandemic Began|url=https://dcist.com/story/21/03/17/asian-americans-hate-incidents-report-atlanta-dc-maryland-virginia/|url-status=live|access-date=17 April 2021|website=DCist}}</ref>Of these reports, Asian women reported racist incidents 2.3 times as often as Asian men.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Leong, K., & Kuo, K|date=2021|title=US has a long history of violence against Asian women|url=https://theconversation.com/us-has-a-long-history-of-violence-against-asian-women-157533|url-status=live|access-date=18 April 2021|website=The Conversation}}</ref> In 2019 the [[King County, Washington|King County]] Prosecutor's Office took 39 hate crimes to court; this number grew to 59 in 2020. The office stated that the increase was because of the rise in attacks on Asians and Asian-Americans.<ref name=":4" />


==== Specific incidences of violence ====
==== Specific incidences of violence ====
On November 11, 2020, Yunhan Zhang, a Chinese tea-store owner, was attacked in his store in [[Dupont Circle]], Washington D.C. Security camera footage showed Zhang working alone at the register when a man entered the store and began yelling at him, repeatedly yelling, "COVID-19." Soon after, the man started pepper-spraying him.<ref>Cartagena, R. (2021). A DC Shop Owner Got Pepper-Sprayed by Someone Shouting Racist Taunts. It's Just the Latest Incident, He Says. Retrieved 18 April 2021, from <nowiki>https://www.washingtonian.com/2020/11/11/dc-shop-owner-yunhan-zhang-pepper-sprayed-racist-taunts/</nowiki></ref> In April 2020, three men targeted businesses within [[Seattle|Seattle's]] [[Chinatown–International District, Seattle|Chinatown-International District]]. The men stuck nationalist and racist stickers onto the business fronts. The [[Seattle Police Department]] stated that this incident was one of 14 anti-Asian hate crimes in 2020. This number grew from nine in 2019 and six in 2018.<ref>Woodman, C. (2021). Anti-Asian Hate Crimes On The Rise In Washington. Retrieved April 16 2021, from <nowiki>https://patch.com/washington/seattle/anti-asian-hate-crimes-rise-washington</nowiki></ref>
On November 11, 2020, Yunhan Zhang, a Chinese tea-store owner, was attacked in his store in [[Dupont Circle]], Washington D.C. Security camera footage showed Zhang working alone at the register when a man entered the store and began yelling at him, repeatedly yelling, "COVID-19." Soon after, the man started pepper-spraying him.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Cartagena|first=R|date=2021|title=A DC Shop Owner Got Pepper-Sprayed by Someone Shouting Racist Taunts. It's Just the Latest Incident, He Says.|url=https://www.washingtonian.com/2020/11/11/dc-shop-owner-yunhan-zhang-pepper-sprayed-racist-taunts/|url-status=live|access-date=April 18 2021|website=Washingtonian}}</ref> In April 2020, three men targeted businesses within [[Seattle|Seattle's]] [[Chinatown–International District, Seattle|Chinatown-International District]]. The men stuck nationalist and racist stickers onto the business fronts. The [[Seattle Police Department]] stated that this incident was one of 14 anti-Asian hate crimes in 2020. This number grew from nine in 2019 and six in 2018.<ref name=":4" />


=== 2021 Atlanta spa shootings ===
=== 2021 Atlanta spa shootings ===
On March 16, 2021, 21-year-old [[2021 Atlanta spa shootings|Robert Aaron Long]] committed a series of mass shootings across three massage parlours in [[Atlanta|Atlanta, Georgia]], United States. Long killed eight people; six of the eight victims were women of Asian descent.<ref>McLaughlin, E., Tolan, C., & Watts, A. (2021). ''What we know about Robert Aaron Long, the suspect in Atlanta spa shootings''. CNN. Retrieved 18 May 2021, from <nowiki>https://edition.cnn.com/2021/03/17/us/robert-aaron-long-suspected-shooter/index.html</nowiki>.</ref> On March 17, 2021, Long was charged with eight counts of murder and one count of aggravated assault.<ref name=":11">Graham, R. (2021). ''8 Dead in Atlanta Spa Shootings, With Fears of Anti-Asian Bias''. NY Times. Retrieved 18 May 2021, from <nowiki>https://www.nytimes.com/live/2021/03/17/us/shooting-atlanta-acworth</nowiki>.</ref> During the investigation, investigators said they had not ruled out bias as a motivating factor, even as the suspect denied racial intent once in custody.<ref name=":11" /> However, Long had stated that he had a “sexual addiction” and had carried out the shootings to eliminate his “temptation”. He also said that he had frequently visited massage parlors and decided to undertake the shootings as a form of vengeance.<ref name=":11" />
On March 16, 2021, 21-year-old [[2021 Atlanta spa shootings|Robert Aaron Long]] committed a series of mass shootings across three massage parlours in [[Atlanta|Atlanta, Georgia]], United States. Long killed eight people; six of the eight victims were women of Asian descent.<ref>{{Cite web|last=McLaughlin, E., Tolan, C., & Watts, A.|date=2021|title=What we know about Robert Aaron Long, the suspect in Atlanta spa shootings|url=from https://edition.cnn.com/2021/03/17/us/robert-aaron-long-suspected-shooter/index.html|url-status=live|access-date=18 May 2021|website=CNN}}</ref> On March 17, 2021, Long was charged with eight counts of murder and one count of aggravated assault.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web|last=Graham|first=R|date=2021|title=8 Dead in Atlanta Spa Shootings, With Fears of Anti-Asian Bias|url=https://www.nytimes.com/live/2021/03/17/us/shooting-atlanta-acworth|url-status=live|access-date=18 May 2021|website=NY Times}}</ref> During the investigation, investigators said they had not ruled out bias as a motivating factor, even as the suspect denied racial intent once in custody.<ref name=":10" /> However, Long had stated that he had a “sexual addiction” and had carried out the shootings to eliminate his “temptation”. He also said that he had frequently visited massage parlors and decided to undertake the shootings as a form of vengeance.<ref name=":10" />


==See also==
==See also==

Revision as of 04:17, 21 May 2021

There were at least several incidents of anti-Chinese violence in Washington, a United States territory and later, a U.S. state, which occurred during the 19th, 20th and 21st century. In the 19th century, the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 created hostile attitudes towards the Chinese people residing in the U.S.[1] The act sparked a wave of anti-Chinese riots and murders occurring in Washington, such as the Tacoma Riot of 1885, the Rock Springs massacre and the Hells Canyon massacre in 1887.[2] There were riots and mob actions in Issaquah (then known as Squak or Squak Valley) and Seattle which resulted in at least four people being killed and extensive property damage.[3][4] Anti-Chinese violence continued throughout the 20th century with the murder of Vincent Chin.[5] The Covid-19 pandemic heightened anti-Asian violence in the 21st century, with specific incidences of verbal and physical assault.[6]

Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882

A page from the Chinese Exclusion Act document.

The Chinese Exclusion Act was enacted by President Chester A. Arthur, on May 6, 1882 in the Supreme Court of the United States, Washington D.C.[7] The law regulated forced immigration of Chinese labourers, prohibiting Chinese prostitutes and people who are convicted or still serving their sentences for crimes in their native countries.[1] The government of the United States implemented this act as they feared that Chinese immigrants were outperforming local workers such as European Americans.[8] The act was regarded as the first to prevent all people of a race from immigrating to the U.S.[9]

Background

Chinese immigration to the United States had a significant increase during the California Gold Rush in 1848.[10] The debt of the Opium Wars (1839-42, 1856-60), as well as floods and droughts, caused many Chinese peasants to leave China in the hopes of finding work internationally.[11] The discovery of gold in the Sacramento Valley of California in the United States became a popular area for Chinese immigration. This discovery led to many Chinese people joining the California Gold Rush.[11]

Legacy

Throughout the 19th century, the Chinese continued to face discrimination in the United States, particularly by the government. Congress approved the Scott Act (1888) and the Geary Act (1892) to restrict Chinese immigration to the United States. In 1902, Congress made the Chinese Exclusion Act a permanent policy.[12][12]The government continued to target the Chinese with discriminatory laws and violence. The "Jim Crow" laws, implemented to marginalize African Americans, also impacted the rights of the Chinese people. This furthered violence towards the Chinese people, leading to the Anti-Chinese Hysteria of 1885-86. The most significant incident of this period was the Rock Springs Massacre in September 1885. The massacre initiated further violence in areas such as Seattle, Tacoma and Washington territory.[12] Congress repealed the Chinese Exclusion Act was repealed by in the 1940s due to the alliance of the U.S. and China during World War II; however, Chinese immigration was restricted to a quota of 105 Chinese per year.[9]

Violence in the 19th century

Mayor Weisbach initiated a poster to alert people to a meeting to remove the Chinese people from Tacoma.

Tacoma Riot of 1885

The Tacoma Riot of 1885 took place on November 3, 1885 and saw the deliberate removal of the Chinese people from Tacoma, Washington. On November 1, 1885, the anti-Chinese organization led by Mayor Jacob Weisbach issued a deadline for all 700 Chinese men and women to leave Tacoma. Approximately 150 people left before the deadline. On the morning of November 3, the vigilante group led by 500 of the Committee of Fifteen attacked and removed Chinese workers from homes and workplaces. Three days later, two Chinese settlements, including approximately 35 Chinese businesses and homes, were burned. After these events, no Chinese people remained in the city.[13]

On February 21, 1885, Mayor Jacob Weisbach ordered a meeting of 900 citizens to discuss ways to expel the Chinese population of Tacoma. Many other groups such as business owners and laborers gathered in the city to express their desire to expel the Chinese community which included a reading of a chapter of the Knights of Labor.[14] A popular slogan used to recruit people to the Knights of Labor was "the Chinese must go”. Despite the widespread hostility towards the Chinese population of Tacoma from community notables and the media, a few leaders spoke out against the force and violence aimed at the Chinese and advocated for tolerance. The most significant of these figures was U.S. Attorney William H. White, who, after the riot, charged 27 people involved in the riot to deprive the Chinese of equal protection of the laws. The most notable of these people included Mayor Weisbach, Probate Judge James Wickersham and Fire Department Chief Jacob Ralph.[13]

Legacy

Dr David Murdock, in his submission of the Citizen Suggestion Award Program to the City of Tacoma on August 22, 1991, suggested that “since the eviction [of the Chinese populace] was from the Old Town waterfront, it would be appropriate to set aside an area of reconciliation (small park with a Chinese motif) and a monument acknowledging the incident, noting Tacoma’s regret and desire to move ahead in unity and respect.”[15] On November 30, 1993, the Tacoma City Council passed Resolution No. 32415 to recognise and reconcile the expulsion of the Chinese people of Tacoma in 1885. This decision led to the creation of the Chinese Reconciliation Park, located off Schuster Parkway, Tacoma, Washington. The park stands a hundred feet from a former lumber mill where Chinese workers were situated in 1885 and within a half-mile of a former Chinese settlement called Little Canton.[15]

A photograph of the landscape of Hells Canyon.

Hells Canyon Massacre

The Hells Canyon Massacre (also known as the Snake River Massacre) took place on May 25, 1887, in Hells Canyon, on the edge of eastern Oregon and eastern Washington. The massacre involved the ambush, robbing and murder of 34 Chinese gold miners by seven white horse gang members.[16] The bodies of the Chinese gold miners were brutally mutilated and dumped in the Snake River. Their bodies were found approximately a month later by other miners and reported to Lewiston authorities.[17]The estimated amount of gold stolen was between $4,000 to $50,000.[18]

A gang member, Frank Vaughn, confessed to the crime in April 1888. He revealed the involvement of Bruce Evans, Charley Canfield and C.O. LaRue, which led to their arrest on March 23, 1888.[19] He also stated that the three other convicted members, Robert McMillan, Carl Hughes and Hiram Maynard, were not involved, and they pleaded not guilty on September 1, 1888.[20]A local rancher, George Craig, who had discovered a portion of the miner's bodies, later stated that "if they had killed 31 white men, something would have been done about it, but none of the juries knew the Chinamen or cared much about it, so they turned the men loose."[17]

Legacy

To commemorate and memorialize the Hells Canyon Massacre of 1887, Richard Nokes and the Chinese Massacre Memorial Committee organized to have a helicopter deliver a 4-by-5-foot granite monument for a ceremony on June 21 and June 22, 2012, to commemorate the death of the 34 Chinese miners.[21] The monument was engraved in English, Chinese and Nez Perce.[21]

Anti-Asian Violence in the 20th century

Murder of Vincent Chin

In June 1982, a 27-year-old Chinese American man named Vincent Chin was beaten to death by two white men in Detriot, Michigan. Chin was mistaken as Japanese by 43-year-old Ronald Ebens and his 22-year-old stepson Michael Nitz.[22]The testimony stated that the dispute arose between the men over a stripper. One of the dancers in the club indicated that Ebens shouted at Chin, saying, “It’s because of you motherf***ers that we’re out of work.”[22] This statement was about the decline in Detroit’s automotive manufacturing.[23] Chin tried to run away from the two men; however, he was unsuccessful and was beaten with a baseball bat and died in the hospital four days later from his injuries.[22] On March 16, 1983, Wayne County Circuit Judge Charles Kaufman ruled that Ebens and Nitz would receive a $3000 fine and zero prison time.[5]

Violence in the 21st century

Covid-19

The Covid-19 pandemic saw the rising of anti-Chinese and anti-Asian hate crimes across the United States. Since March 2020, locals reported 140 hate incidents towards Asian Americans in Washington, D.C, Maryland and Virginia. Stop AAPI Hate, a non-profit organization to combat anti-Asian racism, conducted this study. The most significant recorded hate crime was verbal harassment, which culminated in 68% of nationwide reports. Physical assaults were 11% of reported incidents.[24]Of these reports, Asian women reported racist incidents 2.3 times as often as Asian men.[25] In 2019 the King County Prosecutor's Office took 39 hate crimes to court; this number grew to 59 in 2020. The office stated that the increase was because of the rise in attacks on Asians and Asian-Americans.[6]

Specific incidences of violence

On November 11, 2020, Yunhan Zhang, a Chinese tea-store owner, was attacked in his store in Dupont Circle, Washington D.C. Security camera footage showed Zhang working alone at the register when a man entered the store and began yelling at him, repeatedly yelling, "COVID-19." Soon after, the man started pepper-spraying him.[26] In April 2020, three men targeted businesses within Seattle's Chinatown-International District. The men stuck nationalist and racist stickers onto the business fronts. The Seattle Police Department stated that this incident was one of 14 anti-Asian hate crimes in 2020. This number grew from nine in 2019 and six in 2018.[6]

2021 Atlanta spa shootings

On March 16, 2021, 21-year-old Robert Aaron Long committed a series of mass shootings across three massage parlours in Atlanta, Georgia, United States. Long killed eight people; six of the eight victims were women of Asian descent.[27] On March 17, 2021, Long was charged with eight counts of murder and one count of aggravated assault.[28] During the investigation, investigators said they had not ruled out bias as a motivating factor, even as the suspect denied racial intent once in custody.[28] However, Long had stated that he had a “sexual addiction” and had carried out the shootings to eliminate his “temptation”. He also said that he had frequently visited massage parlors and decided to undertake the shootings as a form of vengeance.[28]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b Railton, B (2013). The Chinese Exclusion Act: What It Can Teach Us About America. New York: Palgrave Pivot. p. 12. ISBN 978-1-137-33909-6.
  2. ^ Gardner, A. Dudley. Wyoming and the Chinese Archived 2007-10-09 at the Wayback Machine, "Wyoming History," Western Wyoming Community College. Retrieved 12 March 2007
  3. ^ Long, Priscilla. "White and Indian hop pickers attack Chinese," The Online Encyclopedia of Washington State History, 1 July 2000. Retrieved 12 March 2007.
  4. ^ Crowley, Walt. "Anti-Chinese Activism - Seattle," The Online Encyclopedia of Washington State History, May 2, 1999. Retrieved 12 March 2007.
  5. ^ a b "Vincent Chin is murdered". HISTORY. 2021. Retrieved 15 May 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  6. ^ a b c Woodman, C (2021). "Anti-Asian Hate Crimes On The Rise In Washington". Retrieved 16 April 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  7. ^ Oakley, D. (2020). Editor's Introduction. City & Community, 19(2), 285-287. doi: 10.1111/cico.12499
  8. ^ Stanton, R (2020). "A Consequential Closing THE CHINESE EXCLUSION ACT OF 1882: The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 prevented the immigration of Chinese people into the United States from the late 1880s until the early 1940s, under the premise that "the coming of Chinese laborers to this country endangers the good order of certain localities within the territory thereof" That act--the first in the nation to place a ban on an entire ethnic and national identity--contributed to a climate of anti-Chinese sentiment in Michigan and left lingering consequences in towns both large and small". Michigan History Magazine.
  9. ^ a b Gyory, A (1998). Closing the Gate: Race, Politics, and the Chinese Exclusion Act. The University of North Carolina Press. p. 238.
  10. ^ Norton, Henry K. (1924). The Story of California From the Earliest Days to the Present. Chicago: A. C. McClurg & Co. pp. 283–296. Archived from the original on 2008-05-09.
  11. ^ a b "Chinese Exclusion Act". HISTORY. 2019. Retrieved 18 May 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  12. ^ a b c Bodenner, C. (2006). Chinese Exclusion Act.” Issues & Controversies in American History [Ebook] (pp. 6-7). New York: Infobase Publishing. Retrieved from https://web.archive.org/web/20171208122340/http://www.ndhs.org/s/1012/images/editor_documents/library/issues_and_controversies_in_american_history_-_chinese_exclusion_act.pdf?sessionid=7aa0a591-8d60-4578-ba02-e7cfe36e74ab&cc=1
  13. ^ a b Englesberg, P. (2014). Tacoma Anti-Chinese Riot of 1885. In Asian Americans: An Encyclopedia of Social, Cultural, Economic, and Political History (Vol. 3, pp. 1063).
  14. ^ "Expulsion". The Tacoma Method. Retrieved 18 May 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  15. ^ a b "ABOUT THE TACOMA CHINESE RECONCILIATION PARK". Tacoma Chinese Reconciliation Park. Retrieved 21 May 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  16. ^ Englesberg, P. (2014). Hells Canyon Massacre (1887). In Asian Americans: An Encyclopedia of Social, Cultural, Economic, and Political History (Vol. 3, pp. 490-491)
  17. ^ a b "The Chinese Murders". Oregon Scout. 1888.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  18. ^ "Files Found in Oregon Detail Massacre of Chinese". The New York Times. 1995.
  19. ^ Nokes, R (2006). A Most Daring Outrage: Murders at Chinese Massacre Cove, 1887. Portland: Oregon Historical Quarterly. pp. 341–346.
  20. ^ Nokes, R. (2009). Massacred for Gold: The Chinese in Hells Canyon (pp. 121-140). Corvallis, Oregon: Oregon State University Press.
  21. ^ a b Cockle, R (2011). "Massacred Chinese gold miners to receive memorial along Snake River". Oregon Live. Retrieved 21 April 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  22. ^ a b c Little, B (2020). "How the 1982 Murder of Vincent Chin Ignited a Push for Asian American Rights". HISTORY. Retrieved 15 May 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  23. ^ Kai-Hwa Wang, F (2017). "Who is Vincent Chin? What you need to know about the 1982 killing". NBC News. Retrieved 15 May 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  24. ^ Fenston, J (2021). "140 Hate Incidents Against Asian Americans Reported In D.C., Maryland, And Virginia Since Pandemic Began". DCist. Retrieved 17 April 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  25. ^ Leong, K., & Kuo, K (2021). "US has a long history of violence against Asian women". The Conversation. Retrieved 18 April 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  26. ^ Cartagena, R (2021). "A DC Shop Owner Got Pepper-Sprayed by Someone Shouting Racist Taunts. It's Just the Latest Incident, He Says". Washingtonian. Retrieved April 18 2021. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |access-date= (help)CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  27. ^ McLaughlin, E., Tolan, C., & Watts, A. (2021). [from https://edition.cnn.com/2021/03/17/us/robert-aaron-long-suspected-shooter/index.html "What we know about Robert Aaron Long, the suspect in Atlanta spa shootings"]. CNN. Retrieved 18 May 2021. {{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  28. ^ a b c Graham, R (2021). "8 Dead in Atlanta Spa Shootings, With Fears of Anti-Asian Bias". NY Times. Retrieved 18 May 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)

Further reading


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