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{{Essay-like|date=April 2020}}
{{Essay-like|date=April 2020}}
{{Merge to|Psychological resilience|date=July 2023}}
{{Merge to|Psychological resilience|date=July 2023}}
'''Mental toughness''' is a measure of individual resilience and confidence that may predict success in sport, education and the workplace.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lin|first1=Ying|last2=Mutz|first2=Julian|last3=Clough|first3=Peter J.|last4=Papageorgiou|first4=Kostas A.|date=2017-08-11|title=Mental Toughness and Individual Differences in Learning, Educational and Work Performance, Psychological Well-being, and Personality: A Systematic Review|journal=Frontiers in Psychology|volume=8|pages=1345|doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01345|issn=1664-1078|pmc=5554528|pmid=28848466|doi-access=free}}</ref> As a broad concept, it emerged in the context of sports training, in the context of a set of attributes that allow a person to become a better athlete and able to cope with difficult training and difficult competitive situations and emerge without losing [[confidence]]. In recent decades, the term has been commonly used by coaches, [[Sport psychology|sport psychologists]], [[sports commentator]]s, and business leaders.
'''Mental toughness''' is a measure of individual resilience and confidence that may predict success in sport, education, and the workplace.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lin|first1=Ying|last2=Mutz|first2=Julian|last3=Clough|first3=Peter J.|last4=Papageorgiou|first4=Kostas A.|date=2017-08-11|title=Mental Toughness and Individual Differences in Learning, Educational and Work Performance, Psychological Well-being, and Personality: A Systematic Review|journal=Frontiers in Psychology|volume=8|pages=1345|doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01345|issn=1664-1078|pmc=5554528|pmid=28848466|doi-access=free}}</ref> The concept emerged in the context of sports training, as one of a set of attributes that allow a person to become a better athlete and able to cope with difficult training and difficult competitive situations and emerge without losing [[confidence]]. The term has been used by coaches, [[Sport psychology|sport psychologists]], [[sports commentator]]s, and business leaders.


Mental toughness and positivity are essential for someone to be successful in life. Whether this is in sports or in the workplace, an individual cannot fold under pressure if they want to thrive in life. When times get hard they have to stay positive and know that if they work hard enough the outcome they are desiring will most likely occur if they can be mentally tough and push through the hard times. This especially applies to sports and athletes, when times get tough you have to keep grinding and do everything in your power to comeback and win the game. An elite athlete must be able to handle pressure, have self-belief and avoid lifestyle distractions. This skill of mental toughness is easiest to learn as a child or during adolescence. The sooner one learns how to mentally tough the easier sports and life will become. Mental toughness is very much applied in sports, but it is also needed for everything done in life. One has to learn how to fight through adversity and not get down on themselves or give up when life gets difficult.They must have that urge to win and know that they have all the capabilities to do anything they desire. This separates good athletes from the elite athletes (Jones et al.,2002).<ref name="Declan Connaughton 2008. Pages 83-95">Declan Connaughton,2008. The development and maintenance of mental toughness: Perceptions of elite performers. ''Journal of Sports Sciences'', Issue 1, Volume 26, Pages 83-95.</ref>
Mental toughness and positivity are essential for someone to be successful. Whether in sports or in the workplace, an individual cannot fold under pressure if they want to thrive. When times get hard they have to stay positive and believe that, if they work hard enough, the outcome they desire will occur. This especially applies to athletes; when times get tough they have to keep grinding and do everything in their power to come back and win. An elite athlete must be able to handle pressure, have self-confidence, and avoid lifestyle distractions{{jargon inline}}. Mental toughness is easiest to learn as a child or during adolescence. The sooner one learns how to be mentally tough, the easier sports and life will become. Mental toughness is widely useful.<ref name=Jones2002>{{cite journal | last1 = Jones | first1 = G. | last2 = Hanton | first2 = S. | last3 = Connaughton | first3 = D. | year = 2002 | title = What Is This Thing Called Mental Toughness? An Investigation of Elite Sport Performers | journal = Journal of Applied Sport Psychology | volume = 14 | issue = 3| pages = 205–218 | doi = 10.1080/10413200290103509 | s2cid = 143788691 }}</ref><ref name="Declan Connaughton 2008. Pages 83-95">{{cite journal|first=Declan|last=Connaughton|year=2008|title=The development and maintenance of mental toughness: Perceptions of elite performers|journal=Journal of Sports Sciences|number=1|volume=26|pages=83–95}}</ref>


Samples of attributes were taken by Graham Jones to examine differences of success between athletes and which ones possess a strong mentality. It was proven that there were 30 attributes suggesting mental toughness in super elite athlete but only an average of 12 in elite athletes indicating the mental difference to become a super elite performer (Jones et al.,2007). This illustrates how important a positive mentality is for athletes to be successful.<ref name="Declan Connaughton 2008. Pages 83-95"/>
Samples of attributes were taken{{How|date=August 2023}} by Graham Jones to examine differences of success between athletes and which ones{{ambiguous|reason=ones=the attributes or the athletes?|date=August 2023}} possess {{clarify|text=a strong mentality|reason=what makes a mentality "strong"?|date=August 2023}}. Thirty attributes suggested{{How|date=August 2023}} mental toughness in super elite athletes but only an average of twelve in elite athletes, suggesting a mental difference in super elite performers.<ref name=Jones2007>{{cite journal | last1 = Jones | first1 = G. | last2 = Hanton | first2 = S. | last3 = Connaughton | first3 = D. | year = 2007 | title = A framework of mental toughness in the world's best performers | url = http://www.cabdirect.org/abstracts/20073152280.html | journal = The Sport Psychologist | volume = 21 | issue = 2| pages = 243–264 | doi = 10.1123/tsp.21.2.243 | hdl = 10369/501 | hdl-access = free }}</ref> This illustrates how important a positive mentality is for athletes to be successful.{{dubious|reason=[[Correlation does not imply causation]]|date=August 2023}}<ref name="Declan Connaughton 2008. Pages 83-95"/>


== Definition ==
== Definition ==
"Mental toughness" is frequently used colloquially to refer to any set of positive attributes that helps a person to cope with difficult situations. Coaches and sport commentators freely use the term mental toughness to describe the mental state of athletes who persevere through difficult sport circumstances to succeed. In support of this, a number of studies have linked mental toughness to sporting success or achievement.<ref>Cowden, R. (2017). Mental toughness and success in sport: A review and prospect. ''The Open Sports Science Journal'', ''10'', 1-14. doi:10.2174/1875399X01710010001</ref> However, it is often simply applied as a default explanation for any victory, which is highly problematic as an attribution. Criticisms about the use of this imprecise approach abound (for example, Moran (2012)<ref>Moran, A. P. (2012). Sport and Exercise Psychology: A Critical Introduction (2nd ed.). Routledge.</ref>).
"Mental toughness" is frequently used colloquially to refer to any set of positive mental attributes that helps a person to cope with difficult situations. Coaches and sport commentators freely use the term mental toughness to describe the mental state of athletes who persevere through difficult sport circumstances to succeed. In support of this, a number of studies have linked mental toughness to sporting success or achievement.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Cowden|first=R.|year=2017|title=Mental toughness and success in sport: A review and prospect|journal=The Open Sports Science Journal|volume=10|pages=1–14|doi=10.2174/1875399X01710010001}}</ref> However, the phrase is often simply applied as a default explanation for any victory. Criticisms about this imprecise use abound.<ref>e.g. {{cite book|last=Moran|first=A. P.|year=2012|title=Sport and Exercise Psychology: A Critical Introduction|edition=2nd|publisher=Routledge}}</ref>


However, within the past 15 years, scientific research has attempted a formal definition of mental toughness as a [[Construct validity|psychological construct]] with clear measurement criteria, allowing robust analyses and comparisons to be made. Mental toughness has been recognized much more in the past decade, because of the impact of performance. An athlete cannot succeed to the best of their ability without being mentally tough.
Scientific research has attempted a formal definition of mental toughness as a [[Construct validity|psychological construct]] with clear measurement criteria, which would allow robust analyses and comparisons to be made.


In particular, three research teams have produced both a definition and a construct definition for mental toughness: The idea of being able to push past failures or blockades by remaining positive and competitive. This process involves training the mind to be ready for these circumstances and to be mentally ready for whatever challenges are to come in ones life.
In particular, three research teams produced both a definition and a construct definition for mental toughness: ''being able to push past failures or blockades by remaining positive and competitive''. This involves training the mind to be ready for challenges.


== Jones, Hanton, and Connaughton ==
=== Jones, Hanton, and Connaughton ===


Graham Jones, Sheldon Hanton, and Declan Connaughton of the United States used [[Personal construct theory|personal construct psychology]] in interviews with elite athletes, as well as elite-level coaches and sport psychologists, to arrive at the following definition of mental toughness:
Graham Jones, Sheldon Hanton, and Declan Connaughton of the United States used [[Personal construct theory|personal construct psychology]] in interviews with elite athletes, as well as elite-level coaches and sport psychologists, to arrive at the following definition of mental toughness:


* Mental toughness is "Having the natural or developed psychological edge that enables you to: generally, cope better than your opponents with the many demands (competition, training, lifestyle) that sport places on a performer; specifically, be more consistent and better than your opponents in remaining determined, focused, confident, and in control under pressure." (Jones, Hanton, & Connaughton, 2002, p.&nbsp;209).<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Jones | first1 = G. | last2 = Hanton | first2 = S. | last3 = Connaughton | first3 = D. | year = 2002 | title = What Is This Thing Called Mental Toughness? An Investigation of Elite Sport Performers | journal = Journal of Applied Sport Psychology | volume = 14 | issue = 3| pages = 205–218 | doi = 10.1080/10413200290103509 | s2cid = 143788691 }}</ref>
{{blockquote|Having the natural or developed psychological edge that enables you to: generally, cope better than your opponents with the many demands (competition, training, lifestyle) that sport places on a performer; specifically, be more consistent and better than your opponents in remaining determined, focused, confident, and in control under pressure.{{r|Jones2002|page=209}} }}


These same researchers published a second paper in 2007, which provided four dimensions (categories) for mental toughness attributes. One general dimension was outlined: a performer's attitude or mindset (specifically, the performer's focus and self-belief). Three time-specific dimensions were outlined: training, competition, and post-competition. These time-specific dimensions contain attributes of mental toughness (such as handling pressure, handling failure and pushing yourself to your physical limit in training) that pertain to their use at these times.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Jones | first1 = G. | last2 = Hanton | first2 = S. | last3 = Connaughton | first3 = D. | year = 2007 | title = A framework of mental toughness in the world's best performers | url = http://www.cabdirect.org/abstracts/20073152280.html | journal = The Sport Psychologist | volume = 21 | issue = 2| pages = 243–264 | doi = 10.1123/tsp.21.2.243 | hdl = 10369/501 | hdl-access = free }}</ref>
These same researchers published a second paper which provided four dimensions (categories) for mental toughness attributes: a general dimension of a performer's attitude or mindset (specifically, the performer's focus and self-belief), and three time-specific dimensions: training, competition, and post-competition. These time-specific dimensions contain attributes of mental toughness (such as handling pressure, handling failure, and pushing yourself to your physical limit in training) that pertain to their use at those times.<ref name=Jones2007 />


== Clough and Earle ==
=== Clough and Earle ===


Peter Clough et al. (2002) <ref>{{Cite book|title=Mental Toughness. The Concept and its Management. In: Cockerill, I. (Ed.), Solutions in Sport Psychology.|last=Clough, P. J., K. Earle, and D. Sewell.|publisher=Thomson|year=2002|location=London|pages=32–45}}</ref> proposed a model of mental toughness, conceptualising it more like a personality trait. Their model has four components: confidence; challenge; control and commitment. In initially conceptualising mental toughness and developing the MTQ48<ref>{{Cite book|title=Mental toughness Questionnaire 48: Technical manual.|last=Clough, P. J., Marchant, D. C., & Earle, K.|publisher=AQR|year=2007|location=Wrexham}}</ref> questionnaire measurement tool, the approach taken by Clough et al. (2002) was to combine existing psychological theory and applied sport psychology in an attempt to bridge the gap between research and practice. Clough et al. saw clear comparisons between their emerging mental toughness data and the concept of hardiness, a key individual difference and resistance resource that helps buffer stress and has become an accepted concept in health psychology within the study of the stress-illness relationship. Clough et al. are clear that mental toughness is concept with broad application and should not be limited to the sports domain. They feel that sports specific measures are unlikely to move the field forward in any meaningful ways. The development work relating to their model is fully described and discussed in their book on mental toughness.<ref>Clough, P.J. & Strycharczyk, D (2012) Applied mental toughness: A tool kit for the 21st Century. Kogan Page {{ISBN|978-0-7494-6377-9}}</ref>
Peter Clough ''et al.''<ref>{{Cite book|chapter=Mental Toughness. The Concept and its Management|editor-last=Cockerill|editor-first=I.|title=Solutions in Sport Psychology|last1=Clough|first1=P. J.|first2=K.|last2=Earle|first3=D.|last3=Sewell|publisher=Thomson|year=2002|location=London|pages=32–45}}</ref> proposed a model of mental toughness that conceptualizes it as a [[trait theory|personality trait]]. Their model has four components: confidence, challenge, control, and commitment. They developed a questionnaire by which to measure mental toughness.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Mental toughness Questionnaire 48: Technical manual.|last=Clough, P. J., Marchant, D. C., & Earle, K.|publisher=AQR|year=2007|location=Wrexham}}</ref> They combined existing psychological theory and applied sport psychology in an attempt to bridge the gap between research and practice. They saw comparisons between their emerging mental toughness data and the concept of [[hardiness (psychology)|hardiness]], a key individual difference and resistance resource that helps buffer stress and has become an accepted concept in health psychology within the study of the stress-illness relationship. They believe mental toughness has broad application and should not be limited to the sports domain. They feel that sports-specific measures are unlikely to move the field forward in any meaningful ways. The development work relating to their model is fully described and discussed in their book on mental toughness.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Clough|first1=P.J.|last2=Strycharczyk|first2=D.|year=2012|title=Applied mental toughness: A tool kit for the 21st Century|publisher=Kogan Page|isbn=978-0-7494-6377-9}}</ref>


== Gucciardi, Gordon, and Dimmock ==
=== Gucciardi, Gordon, and Dimmock ===


Daniel Gucciardi, Sandy Gordon, and James Dimmock of Australia have proposed a different definition and framework of mental toughness, based primarily on their work with Australian footballers. Using [[Personal construct theory|personal construct psychology]], these authors proposed the following definition of mental toughness:
Daniel Gucciardi, Sandy Gordon, and James Dimmock of Australia have proposed a different definition and framework of mental toughness, based primarily on their work with Australian footballers. Using [[Personal construct theory|personal construct psychology]], these authors proposed the following definition of mental toughness:


{{blockquote|Mental toughness in Australian Football is a collection of values, attitudes, behaviors, and emotions that enable you to persevere and overcome any obstacle, adversity, or pressure experienced, but also to maintain concentration and motivation when things are going well to consistently achieve your goals.|Gucciardi, Gordon, & Dimmock, 2008, p.&nbsp;278|<ref name="AF1">{{cite journal | last1 = Gucciardi | first1 = D. | last2 = Gordon | first2 = S. | last3 = Dimmock | first3 = J. | year = 2008 | title = Towards an Understanding of Mental Toughness in American Football | journal = Journal of Applied Sport Psychology | volume = 20 | issue = 3| pages = 261–281 | doi = 10.1080/10413200801998556 | s2cid = 145652482 }}</ref>}}
{{blockquote|Mental toughness in Australian Football is a collection of values, attitudes, behaviors, and emotions that enable you to persevere and overcome any obstacle, adversity, or pressure experienced, but also to maintain concentration and motivation when things are going well to consistently achieve your goals.<ref name="AF1">{{cite journal | last1 = Gucciardi | first1 = D. | last2 = Gordon | first2 = S. | last3 = Dimmock | first3 = J. | year = 2008 | title = Towards an Understanding of Mental Toughness in American Football | journal = Journal of Applied Sport Psychology | volume = 20 | issue = 3| pages = 261–281 | doi = 10.1080/10413200801998556 | s2cid = 145652482 }}</ref>{{rp|278}} }}


Although this definition was produced through work with Australian footballers, it has been generalized to other sports, including cricket<ref name="CMTI">{{cite journal|last2=Gordon|first2=S.|year=2009|title=Development and preliminary validation of the Cricket Mental Toughness Inventory (CMTI)|journal=Journal of Sports Sciences|volume=27|issue=12|pages=1293–310|doi=10.1080/02640410903242306|pmid=19736598|last1=Gucciardi|first1=D. F.|s2cid=23897893}}</ref><ref name="cricketers">{{cite journal|year=2011|title=The relationship between developmental experiences and mental toughness in adolescent cricketers|journal=Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology|volume=33|issue=3|pages=370–93|pmid=21659669|last1=Gucciardi|first1=D. F.|doi=10.1123/jsep.33.3.370}}</ref> and soccer.<ref name="AUSOC" /> This definition conceives of mental toughness as having both reactive ''and'' proactive qualities, meaning that mentally tough players can use mental toughness attributes to help endure and perform well during adverse situations, but can also employ other attributes of mental toughness when the game is going well, to keep them playing at their best.
Although this definition was produced through work with Australian footballers, it has been generalized to other sports, including cricket<ref name="CMTI">{{cite journal|last2=Gordon|first2=S.|year=2009|title=Development and preliminary validation of the Cricket Mental Toughness Inventory (CMTI)|journal=Journal of Sports Sciences|volume=27|issue=12|pages=1293–310|doi=10.1080/02640410903242306|pmid=19736598|last1=Gucciardi|first1=D. F.|s2cid=23897893}}</ref><ref name="cricketers">{{cite journal|year=2011|title=The relationship between developmental experiences and mental toughness in adolescent cricketers|journal=Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology|volume=33|issue=3|pages=370–93|pmid=21659669|last1=Gucciardi|first1=D. F.|doi=10.1123/jsep.33.3.370}}</ref> and soccer.<ref name="AUSOC">{{cite journal | last1 = Coulter | first1 = T. J. | last2 = Mallett | first2 = C. J. | last3 = Gucciardi | first3 = D. F. | year = 2010 | title = Understanding mental toughness in Australian soccer: perceptions of players, parents, and coaches | journal = Journal of Sports Sciences | volume = 28 | issue = 7| pages = 699–716 | doi = 10.1080/02640411003734085 | pmid = 20496223 | s2cid = 2934524 }}</ref> This definition conceives mental toughness as having reactive and proactive qualities; players can use mental toughness attributes to help endure and perform well during adverse situations, but can also employ other attributes of mental toughness when the game is going well, to keep them playing at their best.


== Studies ==
== Studies ==


Some psychologists argued that a separate, sport-specific definition of mental toughness should be developed.<ref>{{multiref2
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Some psychologists have argued that a separate, sport-specific definitions of mental toughness should be developed.<ref>Crust, L. (2007). Mental toughness in sport: A review. ''International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology'', 5(3), 270-290. Retrieved from http://www.informaworld.com/index/934187662.pdf</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Crust | first1 = L | year = 2008 | title = A review and conceptual re-examination of mental toughness: Implications for future researchers | url = http://eprints.lincoln.ac.uk/2532/1/A_review_and_conceptual_re-examination_of_mental_toughness.pdf| journal = Personality and Individual Differences | volume = 45 | issue = 7| pages = 576–583 | doi = 10.1016/j.paid.2008.07.005 }}</ref> They have highlighted that the attributes of a mentally tough athlete in one sport may differ greatly from the attributes of a mentally tough athlete in a different sport. Differences have been hypothesized between male and female athletes, as well as between "team sport" and "individual sport" athletes, but to date, little empirical evidence has shown what these differences are.
|1={{cite journal|last=Crust|first=L.|year=2007|title=Mental toughness in sport: A review|journal=International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology|volume=5|number=3|pages=270–290|url=http://www.informaworld.com/index/934187662.pdf|url-status=dead}}
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|2={{cite journal | last1 = Crust | first1 = L | year = 2008 | title = A review and conceptual re-examination of mental toughness: Implications for future researchers | url = https://eprints.lincoln.ac.uk/id/eprint/2532/1/A_review_and_conceptual_re-examination_of_mental_toughness.pdf| journal = Personality and Individual Differences | volume = 45 | issue = 7| pages = 576–583 | doi = 10.1016/j.paid.2008.07.005}} }}</ref> The attributes of a mentally tough athlete in one sport may differ greatly from the attributes of a mentally tough athlete in a different sport. Differences have also been hypothesized between male and female athletes, and between "team sport" and "individual sport" athletes, but {{as of|2023|alt=to date}}, little empirical evidence has shown what these differences are.


Sport-specific studies of mental toughness have been conducted in cricket,<ref name="CMTI"/><ref name="cricketers"/><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Bull | first1 = S. | last2 = Shambrook | first2 = C. | last3 = James | first3 = W. | last4 = Brooks | first4 = J. | year = 2005 | title = Towards an Understanding of Mental Toughness in Elite English Cricketers | journal = Journal of Applied Sport Psychology | volume = 17 | issue = 3| pages = 209–227 | doi = 10.1080/10413200591010085 | s2cid = 145484578 }}</ref> soccer,<ref name="AUSOC">{{cite journal | last1 = Coulter | first1 = T. J. | last2 = Mallett | first2 = C. J. | last3 = Gucciardi | first3 = D. F. | year = 2010 | title = Understanding mental toughness in Australian soccer: perceptions of players, parents, and coaches | journal = Journal of Sports Sciences | volume = 28 | issue = 7| pages = 699–716 | doi = 10.1080/02640411003734085 | pmid = 20496223 | s2cid = 2934524 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Thelwell | first1 = R. | last2 = Weston | first2 = N. | last3 = Greenlees | first3 = I. | year = 2005 | title = Defining and Understanding Mental Toughness within Soccer | journal = Journal of Applied Sport Psychology | volume = 17 | issue = 4| pages = 326–332 | doi = 10.1080/10413200500313636 | s2cid = 143348472 }}</ref> gymnastics,<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Thelwell | first1 = R. C. | last2 = Such | first2 = B. A. | last3 = Weston | first3 = N. J. V. | last4 = Such | first4 = J. D. | last5 = Greenlees | first5 = I. A. | year = 2010 | title = Developing mental toughness: Perceptions of elite female gymnasts | journal = International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology | volume = 8 | issue = 2| pages = 170–188 | doi=10.1080/1612197x.2010.9671941| s2cid = 144583372 }}</ref> and Australian football.<ref name="AF1"/>
Sport-specific studies of mental toughness have been conducted in cricket,<ref name="CMTI"/><ref name="cricketers"/><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Bull | first1 = S. | last2 = Shambrook | first2 = C. | last3 = James | first3 = W. | last4 = Brooks | first4 = J. | year = 2005 | title = Towards an Understanding of Mental Toughness in Elite English Cricketers | journal = Journal of Applied Sport Psychology | volume = 17 | issue = 3| pages = 209–227 | doi = 10.1080/10413200591010085 | s2cid = 145484578 }}</ref> soccer,<ref name="AUSOC" /><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Thelwell | first1 = R. | last2 = Weston | first2 = N. | last3 = Greenlees | first3 = I. | year = 2005 | title = Defining and Understanding Mental Toughness within Soccer | journal = Journal of Applied Sport Psychology | volume = 17 | issue = 4| pages = 326–332 | doi = 10.1080/10413200500313636 | s2cid = 143348472 }}</ref> gymnastics,<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Thelwell | first1 = R. C. | last2 = Such | first2 = B. A. | last3 = Weston | first3 = N. J. V. | last4 = Such | first4 = J. D. | last5 = Greenlees | first5 = I. A. | year = 2010 | title = Developing mental toughness: Perceptions of elite female gymnasts | journal = International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology | volume = 8 | issue = 2| pages = 170–188 | doi=10.1080/1612197x.2010.9671941| s2cid = 144583372 }}</ref> and Australian football.<ref name="AF1"/><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Gucciardi | first1 = D. F. | last2 = Gordon | first2 = S. | last3 = Dimmock | first3 = J. | last4 = Mallett | first4 = C. J. | year = 2009 | title = Understanding the coach's role in the development of mental toughness: perspectives of elite Australian football coaches | journal = Journal of Sports Sciences | volume = 27 | issue = 13| pages = 1483–96 | doi = 10.1080/02640410903150475 | pmid = 19787540 | s2cid = 30198334 }}</ref><ref name="AFMTI">{{cite journal | last1 = Gucciardi | first1 = D. | last2 = Gordon | first2 = S. | last3 = Dimmock | first3 = J. | year = 2009 | title = Development and preliminary validation of a mental toughness inventory for Australian football | journal = Psychology of Sport and Exercise | volume = 10 | issue = 1| pages = 201–209 | doi = 10.1016/j.psychsport.2008.07.011 }}</ref><ref>{{multiref2
<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Gucciardi | first1 = D. F. | last2 = Gordon | first2 = S. | last3 = Dimmock | first3 = J. | last4 = Mallett | first4 = C. J. | year = 2009 | title = Understanding the coach's role in the development of mental toughness: perspectives of elite Australian football coaches | journal = Journal of Sports Sciences | volume = 27 | issue = 13| pages = 1483–96 | doi = 10.1080/02640410903150475 | pmid = 19787540 | s2cid = 30198334 }}</ref>
|1={{cite journal | last1 = Gucciardi | first1 = D. F. | year = 2010 | title = Mental toughness profiles and their relations with achievement goals and sport motivation in adolescent Australian footballers | journal = Journal of Sports Sciences | volume = 28 | issue = 6| pages = 615–25 | doi = 10.1080/02640410903582792 | pmid = 20391082 | s2cid = 8754196 }}
<ref name="AFMTI">{{cite journal | last1 = Gucciardi | first1 = D. | last2 = Gordon | first2 = S. | last3 = Dimmock | first3 = J. | year = 2009 | title = Development and preliminary validation of a mental toughness inventory for Australian football | journal = Psychology of Sport and Exercise | volume = 10 | issue = 1| pages = 201–209 | doi = 10.1016/j.psychsport.2008.07.011 }}</ref>
|2={{cite journal | last1 = Gucciardi | first1 = D. F. | last2 = Gordon | first2 = S. | last3 = Dimmock | year = 2009 | title = Evaluation of a Mental Toughness Training Program for Youth-Aged Australian Footballers: II. A Qualitative Analysis | journal = Journal of Applied Sport Psychology | volume = 21 | issue = 3| pages = 324–339 | doi = 10.1080/10413200903026074 | s2cid = 216152434}} }}</ref>
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These studies have not employed a common framework, although many have used the definition of mental toughness provided by either the Jones ''et al.'' study or the Gucciardi ''et al.'' study.
<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Gucciardi | first1 = D. F. | year = 2010 | title = Mental toughness profiles and their relations with achievement goals and sport motivation in adolescent Australian footballers | journal = Journal of Sports Sciences | volume = 28 | issue = 6| pages = 615–25 | doi = 10.1080/02640410903582792 | pmid = 20391082 | s2cid = 8754196 }}</ref>
<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Gucciardi | first1 = D. F. | last2 = Gordon | first2 = S. | last3 = Dimmock | year = 2009 | title = Evaluation of a Mental Toughness Training Program for Youth-Aged Australian Footballers: II. A Qualitative Analysis | journal = Journal of Applied Sport Psychology | volume = 21 | issue = 3| pages = 324–339 | doi = 10.1080/10413200903026074 | s2cid = 216152434 }}</ref>
⚫
These studies have not employed a common framework, although many have used the definition of mental toughness provided by either the Jones et al. study, or the Gucciardi ''et al.'' study.


Many sports focused studies have employed the Clough model of mental toughness. They have, using samples of athletes, shown a link between toughness, coping, emotional reactivity, psychological skills and performance.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Crust | first1 = L | year = 2009 | title = The relationship between mental toughness and affect intensity | url = http://eprints.lincoln.ac.uk/2476/1/MTAffectintensity_Accepted_.pdf| journal = Personality and Individual Differences | volume = 47 | issue = 8| pages = 959–963 | doi=10.1016/j.paid.2009.07.023}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Crust | first1 = L. | last2 = Azadi | first2 = K. | year = 2010 | title = Mental toughness and athletes' use of psychological strategies | url = http://eprints.lincoln.ac.uk/2435/1/MT%26tops.pdf| journal = European Journal of Sports Science | volume = 10 | pages = 43–51 | doi=10.1080/17461390903049972| s2cid = 146160156 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Nicholls | first1 = A. | last2 = Polman | first2 = R. | last3 = Levy | first3 = A. | last4 = Backhouse | first4 = S. | year = 2008 | title = Mental toughness, optimism, and coping among athletes | url = https://research.edgehill.ac.uk/en/publications/a4c6a9b1-4bb2-4504-879d-65bd315909e0| journal = Personality and Individual Differences | volume = 44 | issue = 5| pages = 1182–1192 | doi=10.1016/j.paid.2007.11.011}}</ref>
Many sports-focused studies employed the Clough model of mental toughness. They use samples of athletes to investigate a possible link between toughness, coping, emotional reactivity, psychological skills, and performance.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite journal | last1 = Crust | first1 = L | year = 2009 | title = The relationship between mental toughness and affect intensity | url = http://eprints.lincoln.ac.uk/2476/1/MTAffectintensity_Accepted_.pdf| journal = Personality and Individual Differences | volume = 47 | issue = 8| pages = 959–963 | doi=10.1016/j.paid.2009.07.023}}
|2={{cite journal | last1 = Crust | first1 = L. | last2 = Azadi | first2 = K. | year = 2010 | title = Mental toughness and athletes' use of psychological strategies | url = http://eprints.lincoln.ac.uk/2435/1/MT%26tops.pdf| journal = European Journal of Sports Science | volume = 10 | pages = 43–51 | doi=10.1080/17461390903049972| s2cid = 146160156 }}
|3={{cite journal | last1 = Nicholls | first1 = A. | last2 = Polman | first2 = R. | last3 = Levy | first3 = A. | last4 = Backhouse | first4 = S. | year = 2008 | title = Mental toughness, optimism, and coping among athletes | url = https://research.edgehill.ac.uk/en/publications/a4c6a9b1-4bb2-4504-879d-65bd315909e0| journal = Personality and Individual Differences | volume = 44 | issue = 5| pages = 1182–1192 | doi=10.1016/j.paid.2007.11.011}} }}</ref>


One of the few published studies that takes mental toughness out of the sporting domain is based on the [[#Clough and Earle|4 'C's]] model. In this study it was shown that senior managers are tougher than their junior colleagues.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Marchant | first1 = D. | last2 = Polman | first2 = R. | last3 = Clough | first3 = P.J. | last4 = Jackson | first4 = J.G. | last5 = Levy | first5 = A. | last6 = Nicholls | first6 = A.R. | year = 2009 | title = Mental toughness: Managerial and age differences | journal = Journal of Managerial Psychology | volume = 24 | issue = 5| pages = 428–437 | doi=10.1108/02683940910959753}}</ref> Clough and his team are working in a number of areas outside of sport – education, health, social as well as occupational to explore the relevance of mental toughness in these areas.
One of the few published studies that takes mental toughness out of the sporting domain is based on the [[#Clough and Earle|4 'C's]] model. This study showed that senior managers are tougher than their junior colleagues.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Marchant | first1 = D. | last2 = Polman | first2 = R. | last3 = Clough | first3 = P.J. | last4 = Jackson | first4 = J.G. | last5 = Levy | first5 = A. | last6 = Nicholls | first6 = A.R. | year = 2009 | title = Mental toughness: Managerial and age differences | journal = Journal of Managerial Psychology | volume = 24 | issue = 5| pages = 428–437 | doi=10.1108/02683940910959753}}</ref> Clough and his team are working in a number of areas outside of sport—education, health, social, and occupational—to explore the relevance of mental toughness in these areas.


In 2019, a study using a personality assessment identified six personality traits of top Division 1 and professional athletes that define mental toughness. This study also highlighted that the traits that make up mental toughness and predict athletic success are some of the same traits seen in the most successful sale professionals.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://s3.amazonaws.com/www.calipermedia.calipercorp.com/whitepapers/us/Mental+Toughness.pdf|title=How Mental Toughness Differentiates NCAA Division I and Professional Athletes|last=Schoenfelder, Ph.D.|first=Thomas|website=Mental Toughness}}</ref>
In 2019, a study using a personality assessment identified six personality traits of top [[NCAA Division 1]] and professional athletes that define mental toughness. This study also highlighted that the traits that make up mental toughness and that predict athletic success are some of the same traits seen in the most successful sales professionals.<ref>{{citation|url=https://s3.amazonaws.com/www.calipermedia.calipercorp.com/whitepapers/us/Mental+Toughness.pdf|title=How Mental Toughness Differentiates NCAA Division I and Professional Athletes|last=Schoenfelder|first=Thomas|location=Princeton, N.J.|work=Caliper Whitepaper}}</ref>


In April 2020, researchers found that top [[gamer]]s shared the same mental toughness as [[Olympic Games|olympian athletes]].<ref name="QUT-20200611">{{cite news |author=Queensland University of Technology |author-link=Queensland University of Technology |title=Elite gamers share mental toughness with top athletes, study finds - The influence of metnal toughness in elite esports |url=https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2020-06/quot-egs061120.php |date=11 June 2020 |work=[[EurekAlert!]] |access-date=11 June 2020 }}</ref><ref name="FIP-20200423">{{cite journal |author=Poulus, Dylan |display-authors=et al. |title=Stress and Coping in Esports and the Influence of Mental Toughness |date=23 April 2020 |journal=[[Frontiers in Psychology]] |volume=11 |page=628 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00628 |pmid=32390900 |pmc=7191198 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
In April 2020, researchers found that top [[gamer]]s shared {{clarify|text=the same mental toughness|reason=what makes a mental toughness "the same"}} as [[Olympic Games|olympian athletes]].<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite news |author=[[Queensland University of Technology]] |title=Elite gamers share mental toughness with top athletes, study finds—The influence of metnal toughness in elite esports |url=https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2020-06/quot-egs061120.php |date=11 June 2020 |work=[[EurekAlert!]] |access-date=11 June 2020 }}
|2={{cite journal |last=Poulus|first=Dylan |display-authors=et al. |title=Stress and Coping in Esports and the Influence of Mental Toughness |date=23 April 2020 |journal=[[Frontiers in Psychology]] |volume=11 |page=628 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00628 |pmid=32390900 |pmc=7191198 |doi-access=free}} }}</ref>


=== Developmental studies ===
=== Developmental studies ===
There is an active debate about whether mental toughness is primarily a developed characteristic, or has a genetic basis. Two studies suggest that foundational processes occur during development that allow a person to build mental toughness throughout life. For instance, a study of American soccer players, parents, and coaches found that parents provide a "generalized form" of mental toughness upon which coaches can build a sport-specific form of mental toughness.<ref name="AUSOC"/> A similar study suggested that mental toughness development proceeds first through the development of a tough attitude (strong focus and strong self-belief); upon a tough attitude, an athlete learns how to develop mental toughness attributes needed for training, then for competition.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Connaughton | first1 = D. | last2 = Hanton | first2 = S. | last3 = Jones | first3 = G. | year = 2010 | title = The development and maintenance of mental toughness in the World's best performers | url = http://www.cabdirect.org/abstracts/20103259744.html | journal = The Sport Psychologist | volume = 24 | issue = 2| pages = 168–193 | doi = 10.1123/tsp.24.2.168 | hdl = 10369/4088 | hdl-access = free }}</ref> Another study examined the developmental experiences of ten super-elite athletes and found that coaches and significant adults played an important role in mental toughness development through all stages of talent development.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Connaughton | first1 = D. | last2 = Wadey | first2 = R. | last3 = Hanton | first3 = S. | last4 = Jones | first4 = G. | year = 2008 | title = The development and maintenance of mental toughness: perceptions of elite performers | journal = Journal of Sports Sciences | volume = 26 | issue = 1| pages = 83–95 | doi = 10.1080/02640410701310958 | pmid = 17852671 | s2cid = 23040478 }}</ref> Mental toughness can be influenced by having mentally tough parents, but ultimately to master the skill it must be taught. It takes years and a lot of experience to ever master, but truly no one will ever master mental toughness. At some point you can eventually break someone from their mental state. We can only try to become as mentally tough as we humanly can be.
There is debate about whether mental toughness is primarily a developed characteristic, or has a genetic basis. Two studies suggest that foundational processes occur during development that allow a person to build mental toughness throughout life. For instance, a study of American soccer players, parents, and coaches found that parents provide a "generalized form" of mental toughness upon which coaches can build a sport-specific form of mental toughness.<ref name="AUSOC"/> A similar study suggested that mental toughness development proceeds first through the development of a tough attitude (strong focus and strong self-belief); upon a tough attitude, an athlete learns how to develop mental toughness attributes needed for training, then for competition.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Connaughton | first1 = D. | last2 = Hanton | first2 = S. | last3 = Jones | first3 = G. | year = 2010 | title = The development and maintenance of mental toughness in the World's best performers | url = https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02640410701310958 | journal = The Sport Psychologist | volume = 24 | issue = 2| pages = 168–193 | doi = 10.1123/tsp.24.2.168 | hdl = 10369/4088 | hdl-access = free }}</ref> Another study examined the developmental experiences of ten super-elite athletes and found that coaches and significant adults played an important role in mental toughness development through all stages of talent development.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Connaughton | first1 = D. | last2 = Wadey | first2 = R. | last3 = Hanton | first3 = S. | last4 = Jones | first4 = G. | year = 2008 | title = The development and maintenance of mental toughness: perceptions of elite performers | journal = Journal of Sports Sciences | volume = 26 | issue = 1| pages = 83–95 | doi = 10.1080/02640410701310958 | pmid = 17852671 | s2cid = 23040478 }}</ref>


Conversely, the work of Horsburgh et al. (2009) demonstrates that genetic and non-shared environmental factors contribute to the development of mental toughness (as measured by the MTQ48), and that mental toughness behaves "in the same manner as virtually every personality trait that has ever been investigated in behavioural genetic study".<ref>p.&nbsp;104</ref> In establishing significant relationships with the big five personality factors of Costa and McCrae (1992), these researchers have also provided evidence to support Clough et al.’s conceptualisation of mental toughness.<ref name="Horsburgh, V. 2009">{{cite journal | last1 = Horsburgh | first1 = V. | last2 = Schermer | first2 = J. | last3 = Veselka | first3 = L. | last4 = Vernon | first4 = P. | year = 2009 | title = A behavioral genetic study of mental toughness and personality | journal = Personality and Individual Differences | volume = 46 | issue = 2| pages = 100–105 | doi=10.1016/j.paid.2008.09.009}}</ref> Whilst clearly embracing the importance of genetics, Clough clearly acknowledges that mental toughness can be developed.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Crust | first1 = L | last2 = Clough | first2 = P.J. | year = 2011 | title = Developing Mental Toughness: From Research to Practice | journal = Journal of Sport Psychology in Action | volume = 2 | pages = 21–32 | doi=10.1080/21520704.2011.563436| s2cid = 145009783 }}</ref>
Horsburgh ''et al.'' demonstrated that genetic and non-shared environmental factors contribute to the development of mental toughness (as measured by questionnaire), and that mental toughness behaves "in the same manner as virtually every personality trait that has ever been investigated in behavioural genetic study".<ref name="Horsburgh, V. 2009">{{cite journal | last1 = Horsburgh | first1 = V. | last2 = Schermer | first2 = J. | last3 = Veselka | first3 = L. | last4 = Vernon | first4 = P. | year = 2009 | title = A behavioral genetic study of mental toughness and personality | journal = Personality and Individual Differences | volume = 46 | issue = 2| pages = 100–105 | doi=10.1016/j.paid.2008.09.009}}</ref>{{rp|104}} In establishing significant relationships with the big five personality factors of Costa and McCrae (1992),{{full citation needed}} these researchers have also provided evidence to support Clough ''et al.''’s conceptualisation of mental toughness.<ref name="Horsburgh, V. 2009" /> While embracing the importance of genetics, Clough acknowledges that mental toughness can be developed.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Crust | first1 = L | last2 = Clough | first2 = P.J. | year = 2011 | title = Developing Mental Toughness: From Research to Practice | journal = Journal of Sport Psychology in Action | volume = 2 | pages = 21–32 | doi=10.1080/21520704.2011.563436| s2cid = 145009783 }}</ref>


=== Studies with Sports ===
=== Studies with Sports ===
{{citation needed section}}
A research study was conducted to analyze and see how kids with mental toughness performed compared to those without it. Out of a random groupings of people the researchers found that the mentally tough athletes were well better off in their sport. There were 5 reoccurring themes with the athletes that possed mental toughness. First off the athletes proved and showed their mental toughness by overcoming obstacles and not getting down on themselves when things did not go their way. Second the athletes who were mentally tough were much more self driven to do well in their given sport and were self determined. Third the mentally tough were able to control their emotions while playing the sport. This is a very good skill to possess because emotions can sometimes get the best of you when playing a sport. Fourth the mentally tough focus on ways to become better at their sport in ways where they do not get all the glory. They will do things that help their team win that most people may not notice such as giving an assist in Basketball. Lastly mentally tough athletes are good teammates, they are not selfish. They will do whatever it takes to win, whether that is them grinding it out every play while someone else gets all the glory by scoring the baskets. They do not care about the glory they just do whatever it takes for their given team to succeed.
A research study analyzed how kids with mental toughness performed compared to those {{clarify|text=without it|is it binary (with/without) or continuous?}}. Of randomly-selected people the researchers found that the mentally tough athletes were better in their sport. There were five reoccurring themes with the athletes that possessed mental toughness.
# The athletes proved and showed their mental toughness by overcoming obstacles and not getting down on themselves when things did not go their way.
# The athletes who were mentally tough were much more self driven to do well in their given sport and were self determined.
# The mentally tough were able to control their emotions while playing the sport.
# The mentally tough focus on ways to become better at their sport in ways where they do not get all the glory. They will do things that help their team win that most people may not notice such as giving an assist in [[basketball]].
# Mentally tough athletes are good teammates, they are not selfish. They will do whatever it takes to win. They do not care about the glory, they just do whatever it takes for their team to succeed.


== Similar constructs ==
== Similar constructs ==
Mental toughness has been equated with better-understood constructs from psychology such as [[Resilience (psychology)|resilience]] and [[Hardiness (psychological)|hardiness]].
Mental toughness has been equated with better understood constructs from psychology such as [[Resilience (psychology)|resilience]] and [[Hardiness (psychological)|hardiness]]. The term resilience is often incorrectly used interchangeably with mental toughness, and researchers have found the two constructs are positively associated with one another.<ref>Cowden, R.G., Meyer-Weitz, A., & Oppong Asante, K. (2013). Mental toughness in competitive tennis: Relationships with resilience and stress. Frontiers in Psychology, 7(320). doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00320.</ref> However, psychologists define resilience as a positive adaptive ''process'' of coping with stress and adversity, as opposed to a collection of psychological attributes or personality traits. Hardiness has been suggested as a similar construct to mental toughness. Hardiness has typically been constructed as a [[Trait theory|personality trait]], which is generally seen as stable throughout the lifetime. This differs from the conceptions of mental toughness offered by both Jones et al. and Gucciardi et al. These authors both conceive of mental toughness as unstable, arising in development, fluctuating over time, and varying for an individual performer between different sport and life scenarios. This definitional dilemma plagues the use of the term mental toughness and if mental toughness exists as a valid construct it may on occasion be maladaptive. Evidence to support this contention is derived from a study of overtraining behaviors and mental toughness by Tibbert (2013).<ref>Tibbert, S. J. (2013). MENTAL TOUGHNESS AND OVERTRAINING BEHAVIOURS Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Victoria University.</ref> She reported that "the MT attributes of mental self-concept and task familiarity displayed moderate curvilinear correlations with sport-specific recovery scales of the RESTQ-Sport. The curvilinear correlations reflect decreasing recovery at the highest levels of MT. The results suggest that some attributes of MT may relate to increased ability to recover whereas other attributes are associated with lower recovery (p.2-3). Arguably mental toughness is more closely linked with goal fixedness rather than adaptability and a flexible mindset, attributes which are central to resilience.

The term resilience is often incorrectly used interchangeably with mental toughness, though researchers have found the two constructs are positively associated with one another.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Cowden|first1=R.G.|last2=Meyer-Weitz|first2=A.|last3=Oppong Asante|first3=K.|year=2013|title=Mental toughness in competitive tennis: Relationships with resilience and stress|journal=Frontiers in Psychology|volume=7|number=320|doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00320}}</ref> However, psychologists define resilience as a positive adaptive ''process'' of coping with stress and adversity, as opposed to a collection of psychological attributes or personality traits.{{dubious|reason=you sure about that?|date=August 2023}}

Hardiness has been suggested as a similar construct to mental toughness. Hardiness has typically been constructed as a stable [[Trait theory|personality trait]]. This differs from the conceptions of mental toughness offered by both Jones ''et al.'' and Gucciardi ''et al''. Those authors conceive of mental toughness as unstable, arising in development, fluctuating over time, and varying for an individual performer between different sport and life scenarios.

This definitional dilemma plagues the use of the term mental toughness. In addition, if mental toughness exists as a valid construct it may on occasion be maladaptive. Evidence to support this contention is derived from a study of overtraining behaviors and mental toughness. The author reported: "The results suggest that some attributes of MT may relate to increased ability to recover whereas other attributes are associated with lower recovery... Arguably mental toughness is more closely linked with goal fixedness rather than adaptability and a flexible mindset, attributes which are central to resilience."<ref>{{cite thesis|last=Tibbert|first=S. J.|year=2013|title=Mental Toughness and Overtraining Behaviours|degree=Ph.D.|institution=Victoria University}}</ref>


== Measurement ==
== Measurement ==
Two instruments have been developed and validated since 2009. Gucciardi and colleagues validated the American Football Mental Toughness Inventory (AFMTI),<ref name="AFMTI"/> while Sheard and Golby validated the Sports Mental Toughness Questionnaire (SMTQ).<ref name="SMTQ">{{cite journal | last1 = Sheard | first1 = M. | last2 = Golby | first2 = J. | last3 = van Wersch | first3 = A. | year = 2009 | title = Progress Toward Construct Validation of the Sports Mental Toughness Questionnaire (SMTQ) | journal = European Journal of Psychological Assessment | volume = 25 | issue = 3| pages = 186–193 | doi = 10.1027/1015-5759.25.3.186 }}</ref> The MTQ48 pre dates these by some seven years. The factor structure of the MTQ48 has been supported by an independent research grouping led by Horsburgh (2009).<ref name="Horsburgh, V. 2009"/> Dr Lee Crust, University of Lincoln, compared the SMTQ with the MTQ 48 and concluded "Both instruments appear to tap the core components of MT but the MTQ48 seemingly provides a more comprehensive measure".<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Crust | first1 = L. | last2 = Swann | first2 = C. | year = 2011 | title = Comparing two measures of mental toughness | url = http://eprints.lincoln.ac.uk/3702/1/MT_Measures_pdf.pdf| journal = Personality and Individual Differences | volume = 50 | issue = 2| pages = 217–221 | doi=10.1016/j.paid.2010.09.032}}</ref>
Two instruments have been developed and validated {{as of|2009|since=y|since 2009|alt=since 2009}}. Gucciardi ''et al.'' validated the American Football Mental Toughness Inventory (AFMTI),<ref name="AFMTI"/> while Sheard and Golby validated the Sports Mental Toughness Questionnaire (SMTQ).<ref name="SMTQ">{{cite journal | last1 = Sheard | first1 = M. | last2 = Golby | first2 = J. | last3 = van Wersch | first3 = A. | year = 2009 | title = Progress Toward Construct Validation of the Sports Mental Toughness Questionnaire (SMTQ) | journal = European Journal of Psychological Assessment | volume = 25 | issue = 3| pages = 186–193 | doi = 10.1027/1015-5759.25.3.186 }}</ref> The MTQ48 predates these by seven years. The factor structure of the MTQ48 has been supported by an independent research group.<ref name="Horsburgh, V. 2009"/> Dr Lee Crust, University of Lincoln, compared the SMTQ with the MTQ48 and concluded "Both instruments appear to tap the core components of MT but the MTQ48 seemingly provides a more comprehensive measure".<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Crust | first1 = L. | last2 = Swann | first2 = C. | year = 2011 | title = Comparing two measures of mental toughness | url = http://eprints.lincoln.ac.uk/3702/1/MT_Measures_pdf.pdf| journal = Personality and Individual Differences | volume = 50 | issue = 2| pages = 217–221 | doi=10.1016/j.paid.2010.09.032}}</ref>


The MTQ48 questionnaire has demonstrable criterion related, construct and content validity. Reliability has been assessed by numerous independent researchers and it has clearly demonstrable internal consistency and test-retest reliability.{{citation needed|date=April 2018}} All component scales exceed 0.70 and the overall measure has a reliability in excess of 0.90.{{citation needed|date=April 2018}} <!-- Independent research CFA paper published in December (2012) can be accessed through AQR; MD Doug Strycharczyk was involved in the development of the MTQ48. www.aqr.co.uk--> Nevertheless, both the construct validity and the psychometric properties of this test have been questioned by Andersen (2011).<ref>Andersen, M. B. (2011). Who's mental? Who's tough and who's both? Mutton constructs dressed up as lamb. In: Mental toughness in sport : developments in research and theory. Gucciardi, Daniel F and Gordan, Sandy, eds. Routledge Research in Sport and Exercise Science . Routledge, Abington, Oxon, U.K.; New York, pp. 69-88.</ref>
The MTQ48 questionnaire has demonstrable criterion-related, construct, and content validity. Reliability has been assessed by numerous independent researchers and it has demonstrable internal consistency and test-retest reliability.{{citation needed|date=April 2018}} All component scales exceed 0.70 and the overall measure has a reliability in excess of 0.90.{{citation needed|date=April 2018}}<!-- Independent research CFA paper published in December (2012) can be accessed through AQR; MD Doug Strycharczyk was involved in the development of the MTQ48. www.aqr.co.uk--> Nevertheless, both the construct validity and the psychometric properties of this test have been questioned.<ref>{{cite book|last=Andersen|first=M. B.|year=2011|chapter=Who's mental? Who's tough and who's both? Mutton constructs dressed up as lamb|title=Mental toughness in sport : developments in research and theory|editor-last1=Gucciardi|editor-first1=Daniel F.|editor-last2=Gordan|editor-first2=Sandy|publisher=Routledge Research in Sport and Exercise Science|pages=69–88}}</ref>


Several other instruments have purported to measure mental toughness, but research has called their validity into question. For example, the Performance Profile Inventory (PPI) developed by Jim Loehr used seven subscales to compute a mental toughness score. The Mental Toughness Inventory (MTI) developed by Middleton and colleagues measures mental toughness using 12 subscales and appears to show strong theoretical evidence for its formation. However, construct validation has only been performed with a narrow sample of athletes, leaving its psychometric properties up for debate.<ref name="SMTQ"/>
Several other instruments purport to measure mental toughness, but research has called their validity into question. For example, the Performance Profile Inventory (PPI) developed by Jim Loehr used seven subscales to compute a mental toughness score. The Mental Toughness Inventory (MTI) developed by Middleton ''et al.'' measures mental toughness using twelve subscales and appears to show strong theoretical evidence for its formation. However, construct validation has only been performed with a narrow sample of athletes, leaving its psychometric properties up for debate.<ref name="SMTQ"/>


== Sports and Mental Toughness ==
== Sports and Mental Toughness ==
{{citation needed section}}
Mental Toughness is an attribute that all athletes must have if they want to succeed in their given sport. Learning mental toughness at a young age(preferably during adolescence) can be vital to the success of one later in their sports career. Without mental toughness, one cannot be successful in the sports world. Professional athletes such as Tom Brady, Kobe Bryant, and Michael Jordan have had some of the best mental toughness there is. This allows them to get through the tough times and keep going when they face challenges. Learning how to be mentally tough at a young age gives one an advantage over all of their opponents. Mental toughness helps athletes cope with the ups and downs of sports. Researchers have found that mental toughness can correlate directly with performance-based outcomes such as levels of effort, nervousness, and performing at the highest ability.
Mental toughness is an attribute that all athletes must have if they want to succeed in their given sport. Learning mental toughness at a young age (preferably during adolescence) can be vital to the success of one later in their sports career. Without mental toughness, one cannot be successful in the sports world. Professional athletes such as Tom Brady, Kobe Bryant, and Michael Jordan have had some of the best mental toughness there is. This allows them to get through the tough times and keep going when they face challenges. Learning how to be mentally tough at a young age gives one an advantage over all of their opponents. Mental toughness helps athletes cope with the ups and downs of sports.{{editorializing}}


Researchers have found that mental toughness can correlate directly with performance-based outcomes such as levels of effort, nervousness, and performing at the highest ability.{{cn}}
⚫
In more recent times, mental toughness is being recognized more and more for how important it is due to the benefits an athlete gains by being mentally tough. It is likely that children and adolescents with a high degree of mental toughness achieve better competitive outcomes, have more positive experiences in sports, and are much more set for the rest of their lives by obtaining this skill. Mental toughness can directly lead to thriving and being in a good mental health scenario.

⚫
Mental toughness is being recognized more and more for how important it is due to the benefits an athlete gains by being mentally tough.{{cn}} It is likely that children and adolescents with a high degree of mental toughness achieve better competitive outcomes, have more positive experiences in sports, and are much more set for the rest of their lives by obtaining this skill.{{cn}} Mental toughness can directly lead to thriving and being in a good mental health scenario.{{cn}}


==See also==
==See also==


⚫
* [[Psychological resilience]]
⚫
* [[Stress management]]
* [[Hardiness (psychological)|Hardiness]]
* [[Hardiness (psychological)|Hardiness]]
⚫
* [[Psychological resilience]]
* [[Resourcefulness]]
* [[Resourcefulness]]
⚫
* [[Stress management]]


== References ==
== References ==

Revision as of 23:40, 11 August 2023

Mental toughness is a measure of individual resilience and confidence that may predict success in sport, education, and the workplace.[1] The concept emerged in the context of sports training, as one of a set of attributes that allow a person to become a better athlete and able to cope with difficult training and difficult competitive situations and emerge without losing confidence. The term has been used by coaches, sport psychologists, sports commentators, and business leaders.

Mental toughness and positivity are essential for someone to be successful. Whether in sports or in the workplace, an individual cannot fold under pressure if they want to thrive. When times get hard they have to stay positive and believe that, if they work hard enough, the outcome they desire will occur. This especially applies to athletes; when times get tough they have to keep grinding and do everything in their power to come back and win. An elite athlete must be able to handle pressure, have self-confidence, and avoid lifestyle distractions[jargon]. Mental toughness is easiest to learn as a child or during adolescence. The sooner one learns how to be mentally tough, the easier sports and life will become. Mental toughness is widely useful.[2][3]

Samples of attributes were taken[how?] by Graham Jones to examine differences of success between athletes and which ones[ambiguous] possess a strong mentality[clarification needed]. Thirty attributes suggested[how?] mental toughness in super elite athletes but only an average of twelve in elite athletes, suggesting a mental difference in super elite performers.[4] This illustrates how important a positive mentality is for athletes to be successful.[dubious – discuss][3]

Definition

"Mental toughness" is frequently used colloquially to refer to any set of positive mental attributes that helps a person to cope with difficult situations. Coaches and sport commentators freely use the term mental toughness to describe the mental state of athletes who persevere through difficult sport circumstances to succeed. In support of this, a number of studies have linked mental toughness to sporting success or achievement.[5] However, the phrase is often simply applied as a default explanation for any victory. Criticisms about this imprecise use abound.[6]

Scientific research has attempted a formal definition of mental toughness as a psychological construct with clear measurement criteria, which would allow robust analyses and comparisons to be made.

In particular, three research teams produced both a definition and a construct definition for mental toughness: being able to push past failures or blockades by remaining positive and competitive. This involves training the mind to be ready for challenges.

Jones, Hanton, and Connaughton

Graham Jones, Sheldon Hanton, and Declan Connaughton of the United States used personal construct psychology in interviews with elite athletes, as well as elite-level coaches and sport psychologists, to arrive at the following definition of mental toughness:

Having the natural or developed psychological edge that enables you to: generally, cope better than your opponents with the many demands (competition, training, lifestyle) that sport places on a performer; specifically, be more consistent and better than your opponents in remaining determined, focused, confident, and in control under pressure.[2]: 209 

These same researchers published a second paper which provided four dimensions (categories) for mental toughness attributes: a general dimension of a performer's attitude or mindset (specifically, the performer's focus and self-belief), and three time-specific dimensions: training, competition, and post-competition. These time-specific dimensions contain attributes of mental toughness (such as handling pressure, handling failure, and pushing yourself to your physical limit in training) that pertain to their use at those times.[4]

Clough and Earle

Peter Clough et al.[7] proposed a model of mental toughness that conceptualizes it as a personality trait. Their model has four components: confidence, challenge, control, and commitment. They developed a questionnaire by which to measure mental toughness.[8] They combined existing psychological theory and applied sport psychology in an attempt to bridge the gap between research and practice. They saw comparisons between their emerging mental toughness data and the concept of hardiness, a key individual difference and resistance resource that helps buffer stress and has become an accepted concept in health psychology within the study of the stress-illness relationship. They believe mental toughness has broad application and should not be limited to the sports domain. They feel that sports-specific measures are unlikely to move the field forward in any meaningful ways. The development work relating to their model is fully described and discussed in their book on mental toughness.[9]

Gucciardi, Gordon, and Dimmock

Daniel Gucciardi, Sandy Gordon, and James Dimmock of Australia have proposed a different definition and framework of mental toughness, based primarily on their work with Australian footballers. Using personal construct psychology, these authors proposed the following definition of mental toughness:

Mental toughness in Australian Football is a collection of values, attitudes, behaviors, and emotions that enable you to persevere and overcome any obstacle, adversity, or pressure experienced, but also to maintain concentration and motivation when things are going well to consistently achieve your goals.[10]: 278 

Although this definition was produced through work with Australian footballers, it has been generalized to other sports, including cricket[11][12] and soccer.[13] This definition conceives mental toughness as having reactive and proactive qualities; players can use mental toughness attributes to help endure and perform well during adverse situations, but can also employ other attributes of mental toughness when the game is going well, to keep them playing at their best.

Studies

Some psychologists argued that a separate, sport-specific definition of mental toughness should be developed.[14] The attributes of a mentally tough athlete in one sport may differ greatly from the attributes of a mentally tough athlete in a different sport. Differences have also been hypothesized between male and female athletes, and between "team sport" and "individual sport" athletes, but to date, little empirical evidence has shown what these differences are.

Sport-specific studies of mental toughness have been conducted in cricket,[11][12][15] soccer,[13][16] gymnastics,[17] and Australian football.[10][18][19][20] These studies have not employed a common framework, although many have used the definition of mental toughness provided by either the Jones et al. study or the Gucciardi et al. study.

Many sports-focused studies employed the Clough model of mental toughness. They use samples of athletes to investigate a possible link between toughness, coping, emotional reactivity, psychological skills, and performance.[21]

One of the few published studies that takes mental toughness out of the sporting domain is based on the 4 'C's model. This study showed that senior managers are tougher than their junior colleagues.[22] Clough and his team are working in a number of areas outside of sport—education, health, social, and occupational—to explore the relevance of mental toughness in these areas.

In 2019, a study using a personality assessment identified six personality traits of top NCAA Division 1 and professional athletes that define mental toughness. This study also highlighted that the traits that make up mental toughness and that predict athletic success are some of the same traits seen in the most successful sales professionals.[23]

In April 2020, researchers found that top gamers shared the same mental toughness[clarification needed] as olympian athletes.[24]

Developmental studies

There is debate about whether mental toughness is primarily a developed characteristic, or has a genetic basis. Two studies suggest that foundational processes occur during development that allow a person to build mental toughness throughout life. For instance, a study of American soccer players, parents, and coaches found that parents provide a "generalized form" of mental toughness upon which coaches can build a sport-specific form of mental toughness.[13] A similar study suggested that mental toughness development proceeds first through the development of a tough attitude (strong focus and strong self-belief); upon a tough attitude, an athlete learns how to develop mental toughness attributes needed for training, then for competition.[25] Another study examined the developmental experiences of ten super-elite athletes and found that coaches and significant adults played an important role in mental toughness development through all stages of talent development.[26]

Horsburgh et al. demonstrated that genetic and non-shared environmental factors contribute to the development of mental toughness (as measured by questionnaire), and that mental toughness behaves "in the same manner as virtually every personality trait that has ever been investigated in behavioural genetic study".[27]: 104  In establishing significant relationships with the big five personality factors of Costa and McCrae (1992),[full citation needed] these researchers have also provided evidence to support Clough et al.’s conceptualisation of mental toughness.[27] While embracing the importance of genetics, Clough acknowledges that mental toughness can be developed.[28]

Studies with Sports

A research study analyzed how kids with mental toughness performed compared to those without it[clarification needed]. Of randomly-selected people the researchers found that the mentally tough athletes were better in their sport. There were five reoccurring themes with the athletes that possessed mental toughness.

  1. The athletes proved and showed their mental toughness by overcoming obstacles and not getting down on themselves when things did not go their way.
  2. The athletes who were mentally tough were much more self driven to do well in their given sport and were self determined.
  3. The mentally tough were able to control their emotions while playing the sport.
  4. The mentally tough focus on ways to become better at their sport in ways where they do not get all the glory. They will do things that help their team win that most people may not notice such as giving an assist in basketball.
  5. Mentally tough athletes are good teammates, they are not selfish. They will do whatever it takes to win. They do not care about the glory, they just do whatever it takes for their team to succeed.

Similar constructs

Mental toughness has been equated with better-understood constructs from psychology such as resilience and hardiness.

The term resilience is often incorrectly used interchangeably with mental toughness, though researchers have found the two constructs are positively associated with one another.[29] However, psychologists define resilience as a positive adaptive process of coping with stress and adversity, as opposed to a collection of psychological attributes or personality traits.[dubious – discuss]

Hardiness has been suggested as a similar construct to mental toughness. Hardiness has typically been constructed as a stable personality trait. This differs from the conceptions of mental toughness offered by both Jones et al. and Gucciardi et al. Those authors conceive of mental toughness as unstable, arising in development, fluctuating over time, and varying for an individual performer between different sport and life scenarios.

This definitional dilemma plagues the use of the term mental toughness. In addition, if mental toughness exists as a valid construct it may on occasion be maladaptive. Evidence to support this contention is derived from a study of overtraining behaviors and mental toughness. The author reported: "The results suggest that some attributes of MT may relate to increased ability to recover whereas other attributes are associated with lower recovery... Arguably mental toughness is more closely linked with goal fixedness rather than adaptability and a flexible mindset, attributes which are central to resilience."[30]

Measurement

Two instruments have been developed and validated since 2009. Gucciardi et al. validated the American Football Mental Toughness Inventory (AFMTI),[19] while Sheard and Golby validated the Sports Mental Toughness Questionnaire (SMTQ).[31] The MTQ48 predates these by seven years. The factor structure of the MTQ48 has been supported by an independent research group.[27] Dr Lee Crust, University of Lincoln, compared the SMTQ with the MTQ48 and concluded "Both instruments appear to tap the core components of MT but the MTQ48 seemingly provides a more comprehensive measure".[32]

The MTQ48 questionnaire has demonstrable criterion-related, construct, and content validity. Reliability has been assessed by numerous independent researchers and it has demonstrable internal consistency and test-retest reliability.[citation needed] All component scales exceed 0.70 and the overall measure has a reliability in excess of 0.90.[citation needed] Nevertheless, both the construct validity and the psychometric properties of this test have been questioned.[33]

Several other instruments purport to measure mental toughness, but research has called their validity into question. For example, the Performance Profile Inventory (PPI) developed by Jim Loehr used seven subscales to compute a mental toughness score. The Mental Toughness Inventory (MTI) developed by Middleton et al. measures mental toughness using twelve subscales and appears to show strong theoretical evidence for its formation. However, construct validation has only been performed with a narrow sample of athletes, leaving its psychometric properties up for debate.[31]

Sports and Mental Toughness

Mental toughness is an attribute that all athletes must have if they want to succeed in their given sport. Learning mental toughness at a young age (preferably during adolescence) can be vital to the success of one later in their sports career. Without mental toughness, one cannot be successful in the sports world. Professional athletes such as Tom Brady, Kobe Bryant, and Michael Jordan have had some of the best mental toughness there is. This allows them to get through the tough times and keep going when they face challenges. Learning how to be mentally tough at a young age gives one an advantage over all of their opponents. Mental toughness helps athletes cope with the ups and downs of sports.[editorializing]

Researchers have found that mental toughness can correlate directly with performance-based outcomes such as levels of effort, nervousness, and performing at the highest ability.[citation needed]

Mental toughness is being recognized more and more for how important it is due to the benefits an athlete gains by being mentally tough.[citation needed] It is likely that children and adolescents with a high degree of mental toughness achieve better competitive outcomes, have more positive experiences in sports, and are much more set for the rest of their lives by obtaining this skill.[citation needed] Mental toughness can directly lead to thriving and being in a good mental health scenario.[citation needed]

See also

References

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  2. ^ a b Jones, G.; Hanton, S.; Connaughton, D. (2002). "What Is This Thing Called Mental Toughness? An Investigation of Elite Sport Performers". Journal of Applied Sport Psychology. 14 (3): 205–218. doi:10.1080/10413200290103509. S2CID 143788691.
  3. ^ a b Connaughton, Declan (2008). "The development and maintenance of mental toughness: Perceptions of elite performers". Journal of Sports Sciences. 26 (1): 83–95.
  4. ^ a b Jones, G.; Hanton, S.; Connaughton, D. (2007). "A framework of mental toughness in the world's best performers". The Sport Psychologist. 21 (2): 243–264. doi:10.1123/tsp.21.2.243. hdl:10369/501.
  5. ^ Cowden, R. (2017). "Mental toughness and success in sport: A review and prospect". The Open Sports Science Journal. 10: 1–14. doi:10.2174/1875399X01710010001.
  6. ^ e.g. Moran, A. P. (2012). Sport and Exercise Psychology: A Critical Introduction (2nd ed.). Routledge.
  7. ^ Clough, P. J.; Earle, K.; Sewell, D. (2002). "Mental Toughness. The Concept and its Management". In Cockerill, I. (ed.). Solutions in Sport Psychology. London: Thomson. pp. 32–45.
  8. ^ Clough, P. J., Marchant, D. C., & Earle, K. (2007). Mental toughness Questionnaire 48: Technical manual. Wrexham: AQR.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  9. ^ Clough, P.J.; Strycharczyk, D. (2012). Applied mental toughness: A tool kit for the 21st Century. Kogan Page. ISBN 978-0-7494-6377-9.
  10. ^ a b Gucciardi, D.; Gordon, S.; Dimmock, J. (2008). "Towards an Understanding of Mental Toughness in American Football". Journal of Applied Sport Psychology. 20 (3): 261–281. doi:10.1080/10413200801998556. S2CID 145652482.
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  12. ^ a b Gucciardi, D. F. (2011). "The relationship between developmental experiences and mental toughness in adolescent cricketers". Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology. 33 (3): 370–93. doi:10.1123/jsep.33.3.370. PMID 21659669.
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  14. ^
  15. ^ Bull, S.; Shambrook, C.; James, W.; Brooks, J. (2005). "Towards an Understanding of Mental Toughness in Elite English Cricketers". Journal of Applied Sport Psychology. 17 (3): 209–227. doi:10.1080/10413200591010085. S2CID 145484578.
  16. ^ Thelwell, R.; Weston, N.; Greenlees, I. (2005). "Defining and Understanding Mental Toughness within Soccer". Journal of Applied Sport Psychology. 17 (4): 326–332. doi:10.1080/10413200500313636. S2CID 143348472.
  17. ^ Thelwell, R. C.; Such, B. A.; Weston, N. J. V.; Such, J. D.; Greenlees, I. A. (2010). "Developing mental toughness: Perceptions of elite female gymnasts". International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology. 8 (2): 170–188. doi:10.1080/1612197x.2010.9671941. S2CID 144583372.
  18. ^ Gucciardi, D. F.; Gordon, S.; Dimmock, J.; Mallett, C. J. (2009). "Understanding the coach's role in the development of mental toughness: perspectives of elite Australian football coaches". Journal of Sports Sciences. 27 (13): 1483–96. doi:10.1080/02640410903150475. PMID 19787540. S2CID 30198334.
  19. ^ a b Gucciardi, D.; Gordon, S.; Dimmock, J. (2009). "Development and preliminary validation of a mental toughness inventory for Australian football". Psychology of Sport and Exercise. 10 (1): 201–209. doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2008.07.011.
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    • Gucciardi, D. F. (2010). "Mental toughness profiles and their relations with achievement goals and sport motivation in adolescent Australian footballers". Journal of Sports Sciences. 28 (6): 615–25. doi:10.1080/02640410903582792. PMID 20391082. S2CID 8754196.
    • Gucciardi, D. F.; Gordon, S.; Dimmock (2009). "Evaluation of a Mental Toughness Training Program for Youth-Aged Australian Footballers: II. A Qualitative Analysis". Journal of Applied Sport Psychology. 21 (3): 324–339. doi:10.1080/10413200903026074. S2CID 216152434.
  21. ^
  22. ^ Marchant, D.; Polman, R.; Clough, P.J.; Jackson, J.G.; Levy, A.; Nicholls, A.R. (2009). "Mental toughness: Managerial and age differences". Journal of Managerial Psychology. 24 (5): 428–437. doi:10.1108/02683940910959753.
  23. ^ Schoenfelder, Thomas, "How Mental Toughness Differentiates NCAA Division I and Professional Athletes" (PDF), Caliper Whitepaper, Princeton, N.J.
  24. ^
  25. ^ Connaughton, D.; Hanton, S.; Jones, G. (2010). "The development and maintenance of mental toughness in the World's best performers". The Sport Psychologist. 24 (2): 168–193. doi:10.1123/tsp.24.2.168. hdl:10369/4088.
  26. ^ Connaughton, D.; Wadey, R.; Hanton, S.; Jones, G. (2008). "The development and maintenance of mental toughness: perceptions of elite performers". Journal of Sports Sciences. 26 (1): 83–95. doi:10.1080/02640410701310958. PMID 17852671. S2CID 23040478.
  27. ^ a b c Horsburgh, V.; Schermer, J.; Veselka, L.; Vernon, P. (2009). "A behavioral genetic study of mental toughness and personality". Personality and Individual Differences. 46 (2): 100–105. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2008.09.009.
  28. ^ Crust, L; Clough, P.J. (2011). "Developing Mental Toughness: From Research to Practice". Journal of Sport Psychology in Action. 2: 21–32. doi:10.1080/21520704.2011.563436. S2CID 145009783.
  29. ^ Cowden, R.G.; Meyer-Weitz, A.; Oppong Asante, K. (2013). "Mental toughness in competitive tennis: Relationships with resilience and stress". Frontiers in Psychology. 7 (320). doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00320.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  30. ^ Tibbert, S. J. (2013). Mental Toughness and Overtraining Behaviours (Ph.D. thesis). Victoria University.
  31. ^ a b Sheard, M.; Golby, J.; van Wersch, A. (2009). "Progress Toward Construct Validation of the Sports Mental Toughness Questionnaire (SMTQ)". European Journal of Psychological Assessment. 25 (3): 186–193. doi:10.1027/1015-5759.25.3.186.
  32. ^ Crust, L.; Swann, C. (2011). "Comparing two measures of mental toughness" (PDF). Personality and Individual Differences. 50 (2): 217–221. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2010.09.032.
  33. ^ Andersen, M. B. (2011). "Who's mental? Who's tough and who's both? Mutton constructs dressed up as lamb". In Gucciardi, Daniel F.; Gordan, Sandy (eds.). Mental toughness in sport : developments in research and theory. Routledge Research in Sport and Exercise Science. pp. 69–88.
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