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''T. saginata'' infection is usually [[asymptomatic]], but heavy infection often results in weight loss, [[dizziness]], [[abdominal pain]], [[diarrhea]], [[headache]]s, [[nausea]], [[constipation]], [[indigestion|chronic indigestion]], and loss of [[appetite]]. Intestinal obstruction in humans can be alleviated by surgery. The tapeworm can also expel [[antigen]]s that can cause an allergic reaction in the individual.<ref name=who>{{cite web|title=Taeniasis/Cysticercosis|url=http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs376/en/|work=WHO Fact sheet N°376|publisher=World Health Organization|accessdate=7 February 2014|year=2013}}</ref> It is an also rare cause of [[ileus]], [[pancreatitis]], cholecystitis, and [[cholangitis]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Uygur-Bayramiçli|first=O|author2=Ak, O |author3=Dabak, R |author4=Demirhan, G |author5= Ozer, S |title=''Taenia saginata'' a rare cause of acute cholangitis: a case report|journal=Acta Clinica Belgica|volume=67|issue=6|pages=436–7|pmid=23340150|year=2012 |doi=10.1179/ACB.67.6.2062709}}</ref>
''T. saginata'' infection is usually [[asymptomatic]], but heavy infection often results in weight loss, [[dizziness]], [[abdominal pain]], [[diarrhea]], [[headache]]s, [[nausea]], [[constipation]], [[indigestion|chronic indigestion]], and loss of [[appetite]]. Intestinal obstruction in humans can be alleviated by surgery. The tapeworm can also expel [[antigen]]s that can cause an allergic reaction in the individual.<ref name=who>{{cite web|title=Taeniasis/Cysticercosis|url=http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs376/en/|work=WHO Fact sheet N°376|publisher=World Health Organization|accessdate=7 February 2014|year=2013}}</ref> It is an also rare cause of [[ileus]], [[pancreatitis]], cholecystitis, and [[cholangitis]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Uygur-Bayramiçli|first=O|author2=Ak, O |author3=Dabak, R |author4=Demirhan, G |author5= Ozer, S |title=''Taenia saginata'' a rare cause of acute cholangitis: a case report|journal=Acta Clinica Belgica|volume=67|issue=6|pages=436–7|pmid=23340150|year=2012 |doi=10.1179/ACB.67.6.2062709}}</ref>


==Symptoms of infection with T. asiatica==
===Symptoms of infection with T. asiatica===


''T. asiatica'' infection in human is usually [[asymptomatic]]. There was an isolated report of severe pathogenic lesions in a 60-year old woman admitted to [[Mackay Memorial Hospital]] in Taiwan. Using [[endoscopy]] she was diagnosed with multiple erosions and active bleeding from [[ulcer]]s in the stomach and duodenum caused by a single tapeworm. A year later she returned with intermittent epigastric pain, which she reported having had for several months. Again a tapeworm was seen.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Liao|first=Wen-Shen|author2=Bair, Ming Jong |title=''Taenia'' in the Gastrointestinal Tract|journal=New England Journal of Medicine|year=2007|volume=357|issue=10|pages=1028–1028|doi=10.1056/NEJMicm067761|pmid=17804847}}</ref> The tapeworm species was not identified but was suspected to be ''T. asiatica'', because the woman ate pork liver at a festival, and the common pork tapeworm ''T. solium'' is mostly found in pig muscle.<ref>{{cite journal|last=McManus|first=Donald P.|title=''Taenia'' in the Gastrointestinal Tract|journal=New England Journal of Medicine|year=2008|volume=358|issue=3|pages=311–311|doi=10.1056/NEJMc072882|pmid=18199875}}</ref>
''T. asiatica'' infection in human is usually [[asymptomatic]]. There was an isolated report of severe pathogenic lesions in a 60-year old woman admitted to [[Mackay Memorial Hospital]] in Taiwan. Using [[endoscopy]] she was diagnosed with multiple erosions and active bleeding from [[ulcer]]s in the stomach and duodenum caused by a single tapeworm. A year later she returned with intermittent epigastric pain, which she reported having had for several months. Again a tapeworm was seen.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Liao|first=Wen-Shen|author2=Bair, Ming Jong |title=''Taenia'' in the Gastrointestinal Tract|journal=New England Journal of Medicine|year=2007|volume=357|issue=10|pages=1028–1028|doi=10.1056/NEJMicm067761|pmid=17804847}}</ref> The tapeworm species was not identified but was suspected to be ''T. asiatica'', because the woman ate pork liver at a festival, and the common pork tapeworm ''T. solium'' is mostly found in pig muscle.<ref>{{cite journal|last=McManus|first=Donald P.|title=''Taenia'' in the Gastrointestinal Tract|journal=New England Journal of Medicine|year=2008|volume=358|issue=3|pages=311–311|doi=10.1056/NEJMc072882|pmid=18199875}}</ref>
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[[Eosinophilia]] and elevated [[Immunoglobulin E|IgE]] levels are chief hematological findings. Also [[Ziehl–Neelsen stain]] can be used to differentiate between mature ''T. saginata'' and ''T. solium'', in most cases ''T. saginata'' will stain while ''T. solium'' will not, but the method is not strictly reliable.<ref>{{cite journal |authors=Juan A. Jimenez, Silvia Rodriguez, Luz M. Moyano, Yesenia Castillo, Héctor H. García |year=2010 |title=Differentiating Taenia eggs found in human stools - Does Ziehl Neelsen staining help? |journal=Tropical Medicine & International Health |volume=15 |issue=9 |pages=1077–1081 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-3156.2010.02579.x}}</ref>
[[Eosinophilia]] and elevated [[Immunoglobulin E|IgE]] levels are chief hematological findings. Also [[Ziehl–Neelsen stain]] can be used to differentiate between mature ''T. saginata'' and ''T. solium'', in most cases ''T. saginata'' will stain while ''T. solium'' will not, but the method is not strictly reliable.<ref>{{cite journal |authors=Juan A. Jimenez, Silvia Rodriguez, Luz M. Moyano, Yesenia Castillo, Héctor H. García |year=2010 |title=Differentiating Taenia eggs found in human stools - Does Ziehl Neelsen staining help? |journal=Tropical Medicine & International Health |volume=15 |issue=9 |pages=1077–1081 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-3156.2010.02579.x}}</ref>

===Diagnosis of infection with T. asiatica===
The basic [[diagnosis]] is examination of a [[stool sample]] to find the parasite eggs. However there is a serious limitation as to the identification of the species because the eggs of all human [[taenia (tapeworm)|taenids]] look the same. Even with the proglottids it is extremely difficult to identify ''T. asiatica'' from other taenids because of their striking resemblances. The species and ''T. saginata'' are frequently confused due to their morphological similarities and [[sympatric|sympatric distribution]]. Identification often requires [[histology|histological]] observation of the [[uterus|uterine branches]] and [[PCR]] detection of [[ribosome|ribosomal 5.8S gene]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=Differential diagnosis of ''Taenia saginata'' and ''Taenia solium'' infection by PCR |pmid=10655377 |url=http://jcm.asm.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10655377 |year=2000 |last1=González |first1=LM |last2=Montero |first2=E |last3=Harrison |first3=LJ |last4=Parkhouse |first4=RM |last5=Garate |first5=T |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=737–44 |pmc=86191 |journal=Journal of Clinical Microbiology}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=The differentiation of a newly described Asian taeniid from ''Taenia saginata'' using enzymatically amplified non-transcribed ribosomal DNA repeat sequences |pmid=1822899 |year=1991 |last1=Zarlenga |first1=DS |volume=22 Suppl |pages=251–5 |journal=The Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Health }}</ref> The presence of rostellum on the scolex, a large number of [[uterus|uretine branches]] (more than 57) and prominent posterior protuberances in gravid proglottids, and wart-like formation on the surface of the larvae are the distinguishing structures.

To date the most relevant diagnosis of taeniasis due to ''T. asiatica'' is by enzyme-linked immunoelectrotransfer blot (EITB). EITB can effectively identify it from other taenid infections since [[serological testing|serological test]] indicates that immunoblot band of 21.5 kDa exhibited specificity only to ''T. asiatica''.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Immunoblot Patterns of ''Taenia asiatica'' Taeniasis |journal=The Korean Journal of Parasitology |pmid=19290097 |doi=10.3347/kjp.2009.47.1.73 |year=2009 |last1=Jeon |first1=Hyeong-Kyu |last2=Eom |first2=Keeseon S. |volume=47 |pages=73–7 |issue=1 |pmc=2655338}}</ref> Even though it gives 100% sensitivity, it has not been tested with human sera for [[cross-reactivity]], and it may show a high [[false positive]] result. [[Loop-mediated isothermal amplification]] (LAMP) is highly sensitive (~2.5 times that of multiplex PCR), without false positive, for differentiating the taenid species from faecal samples.<ref>{{cite journal |title= Evaluation of a loop-mediated isothermal amplification method using fecal specimens for differential detection of ''Taenia'' species from humans |pmid= 20631114 |year= 2010 |last1= Nkouawa |first1= A |last2= Sako |first2= Y |last3= Li |first3= T |last4= Chen |first4= X |last5= Wandra |first5= T |last6= Swastika |first6= IK |last7= Nakao |first7= M |last8= Yanagida |first8= T |last9= Nakaya |first9= K |last10= Qiu |first10= D |last11= Ito |first11= A |volume= 48 |issue= 9 |pages= 3350–2 |doi= 10.1128/JCM.00697-10 |pmc= 2937673 |journal= Journal of Clinical Microbiology }}</ref>


== Prevention ==
== Prevention ==
Line 63: Line 68:
===Treatment for infection with T. saginata===
===Treatment for infection with T. saginata===
Taenaisis is easily treated with [[praziquantel]] (5–10&nbsp;mg/kg, single-administration) or [[niclosamide]] (adults and children over 6 years: 2 g, single-administration after a light breakfast, followed after 2 hours by a laxative; children aged 2–6 years: 1 g; children under 2 years: 500&nbsp;mg).<ref name=who/> [[Albendazole]] is also highly effective for treatment of cattle infection.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Lopes|first=Welber Daniel Zanetti|coauthors=Cruz, Breno Cayeiro; Soares, Vando Edésio; Nunes, Jorge Luis N.; Teixeira, Weslen Fabricio Pires; Maciel, Willian Giquelin; Buzzulini, Carolina; Pereira, João Carlos Melo; Felippelli, Gustavo; Soccol, Vanette Thomaz; de Oliveira, Gilson Pereira; da Costa, Alvimar José|title=Historic of therapeutic efficacy of albendazol sulphoxide administered in different routes, dosages and treatment schemes, against ''Taenia saginata'' cysticercus in cattle experimentally infected|journal=Experimental Parasitology|year= 2014|volume=137|issue=1|pages=14–20|doi=10.1016/j.exppara.2013.11.007|pmid=24309372}}</ref>
Taenaisis is easily treated with [[praziquantel]] (5–10&nbsp;mg/kg, single-administration) or [[niclosamide]] (adults and children over 6 years: 2 g, single-administration after a light breakfast, followed after 2 hours by a laxative; children aged 2–6 years: 1 g; children under 2 years: 500&nbsp;mg).<ref name=who/> [[Albendazole]] is also highly effective for treatment of cattle infection.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Lopes|first=Welber Daniel Zanetti|coauthors=Cruz, Breno Cayeiro; Soares, Vando Edésio; Nunes, Jorge Luis N.; Teixeira, Weslen Fabricio Pires; Maciel, Willian Giquelin; Buzzulini, Carolina; Pereira, João Carlos Melo; Felippelli, Gustavo; Soccol, Vanette Thomaz; de Oliveira, Gilson Pereira; da Costa, Alvimar José|title=Historic of therapeutic efficacy of albendazol sulphoxide administered in different routes, dosages and treatment schemes, against ''Taenia saginata'' cysticercus in cattle experimentally infected|journal=Experimental Parasitology|year= 2014|volume=137|issue=1|pages=14–20|doi=10.1016/j.exppara.2013.11.007|pmid=24309372}}</ref>

===Treatment of infection with T. asiatica===
Niclosamide (2&nbsp;mg) is very effective against experimental infection in human.<ref name="eom"/> In general [[cestode]] infections are treated with [[praziquantel]] and [[albendazole]]. [[Mepacrine|Atrabine]] is quite effective but indicates [[adverse effect]]s in humans.<ref name=ooi/> The commonly used drugs for tapeworms, [[benzimidazoles]] are relatively ineffective. Praziquantel at a single dose of 150&nbsp;mg is the most effective medication against ''T. asiatica'' without causing side effects.<ref>{{cite journal |author= |pmid=3738612 |year= 1986 |last1= Fan |first1= PC |last2= Chung |first2= WC |last3= Chan |first3= CH |last4= Chen |first4= YA |last5= Cheng |first5= FY |last6= Hsu |first6= MC |title= Studies on taeniasis in Taiwan. V. Field trial on evaluation of therapeutic efficacy of mebendazole and praziquantel against taeniasis |volume= 17 |issue= 1 |pages= 82–90 |journal= The Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Health }}</ref>


==Epidemiology==
==Epidemiology==
===Epidemiology for infection with Taenia saginata===
===Epidemiology for infection with Taenia saginata===
The disease is relatively common in Africa, some parts of Eastern Europe, the Philippines, and Latin America.<ref name="lange">{{cite book|last=Somers|first=Kenneth D.|title=Lange Microbiology and Infectious Diseases Flash Cards|publisher=Lange Medical Books/ McGraw-Hill|location=New York|isbn=9780071628792|pages=184–186|edition=2nd|author2=Morse, Stephen A. |year=2010}}</ref> This parasite is found anywhere where beef is eaten, even in countries such as the United States, with strict federal sanitation policies. In the US, the incidence of infection is low, but 25% of cattle sold are still infected.<ref name="schmidt"/> The total global infection is estimated to be between 40 and 60 million.<ref name=eck>{{cite book|title=Medical Microbiology|publisher=Thieme|location=Stuttgart|isbn=9781588902450|pages=560–562|author=Eckert, J.|editor=Kayser, F.H., Bienz, K.A., Eckert, J., Zinkernagel, R.M.|chapter=Helminths|url=http://books.google.co.in/books?id=L6OCIwb08LwC&printsec|year=2005}}</ref> It is most prevalent in [[Sub-Saharan Africa]] and the [[Middle East]].<ref name=ort>{{cite book|title=Foodborne parasites|publisher=Springer|location=New York|isbn=9780387311975|pages=207–210|author=Ortega, Ynes R.|year=2006}}</ref>
The disease is relatively common in Africa, some parts of Eastern Europe, the Philippines, and Latin America.<ref name="lange">{{cite book|last=Somers|first=Kenneth D.|title=Lange Microbiology and Infectious Diseases Flash Cards|publisher=Lange Medical Books/ McGraw-Hill|location=New York|isbn=9780071628792|pages=184–186|edition=2nd|author2=Morse, Stephen A. |year=2010}}</ref> This parasite is found anywhere where beef is eaten, even in countries such as the United States, with strict federal sanitation policies. In the US, the incidence of infection is low, but 25% of cattle sold are still infected.<ref name="schmidt"/> The total global infection is estimated to be between 40 and 60 million.<ref name=eck>{{cite book|title=Medical Microbiology|publisher=Thieme|location=Stuttgart|isbn=9781588902450|pages=560–562|author=Eckert, J.|editor=Kayser, F.H., Bienz, K.A., Eckert, J., Zinkernagel, R.M.|chapter=Helminths|url=http://books.google.co.in/books?id=L6OCIwb08LwC&printsec|year=2005}}</ref> It is most prevalent in [[Sub-Saharan Africa]] and the [[Middle East]].<ref name=ort>{{cite book|title=Foodborne parasites|publisher=Springer|location=New York|isbn=9780387311975|pages=207–210|author=Ortega, Ynes R.|year=2006}}</ref>

===Epidemiology of infection with T. asiatica===
The [[parasite]] is known in Asian countries including Taiwan, Korea, Indonesia, [[Nepal]], [[Thailand]] and [[China]]. In addition, [[genotyping|molecular genotyping techniques]] have revealed that the disease also occurs in [[Japan]], the [[Philippines]], and [[Vietnam]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=Geographical distribution of ''Taenia asiatica'' and related species |journal=The Korean Journal of Parasitology |pmid=19885327 |url=http://www.parasitol.or.kr/kjp/DOIx.php?id=10.3347/kjp.2009.47.S.S115 |doi=10.3347/kjp.2009.47.S.S115 |pmc=2769216 |year=2009 |last1=Eom |first1=Keeseon S. |last2=Jeon |first2=Hyeong-Kyu |last3=Rim |first3=Han-Jong |volume=47 |pages=S115–24 |issue=Suppl}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Ale|first=Anita|author2=Victor, Bjorn |author3=Praet, Nicolas |author4=Gabriël, Sarah |author5=Speybroeck, Niko |author6=Dorny, Pierre |author7= Devleesschauwer, Brecht |title=Epidemiology and genetic diversity of Taenia asiatica: a systematic review|journal=Parasites & Vectors|volume=7|issue=1|pages=45|doi=10.1186/1756-3305-7-45|pmid=24450957|year=2014 |pmc=3900737}}</ref>


==References==
==References==

Revision as of 21:49, 29 November 2014

This article is about the infection. For the organism, see Taenia saginata.
Taeniasis
SpecialtyInfectious diseases Edit this on Wikidata
The life cycle of Taenia saginata causing the infection taeniasis

Taeniasis is a form of tapeworm infection (helminthiasis) which is caused by tapeworms of the genus Taenia. The worm remains in the intestine until it reaches a length of about 3 feet (1 metre or so). The two most important human pathogens in the genus are Taenia solium (the pork tapeworm) and Taenia saginata (the beef tapeworm). Infection is acquired by eating undercooked beef and pork that contain the fluid-filled cysticercuses of either tapeworm species. The adult worms live in the lumen of the intestine where it causes very few symptoms. It absorbs all its nutrients directly from the host's small intestine, which in some cases can leave the patient with depleted strength. The eggs of the worm break off in the form of segments, known as gravid proglottids, from the mature worm and pass out in the faeces of the infected person. If they are consumed by an intermediate host such as a cow or pig, these oncospheres hatch within the duodenum under the presence of gastric juices and penetrate through the intestinal wall into nearby blood vessels, where they then enter the bloodstream. Upon reaching a suitable site (often within the skeletal muscles, liver or lungs of the intermediate host) these larvae then develop into a cyst, which then becomes a fluid-filled cysticercus. When this contaminated tissue is consumed raw or undercooked by a human, the worm matures in the patient's small intestine.

Taeniasis is a tapeworm larvae infection whilst Cysticercosis is an adult tapeworm infection, and both of them belong to the group of neglected tropical diseases.[1] They are the most common infections of the central nervous system.[2]

Symptoms

Taeniasis is generally asymptomatic and is diagnosed when a portion of the worm is passed in the stool. Taeniasis is not fatal, although cysticercosis can cause epilepsy and neurocystocercosis can be fatal.[2][3]

Symptoms for infection with T. saginata

T. saginata infection is usually asymptomatic, but heavy infection often results in weight loss, dizziness, abdominal pain, diarrhea, headaches, nausea, constipation, chronic indigestion, and loss of appetite. Intestinal obstruction in humans can be alleviated by surgery. The tapeworm can also expel antigens that can cause an allergic reaction in the individual.[4] It is an also rare cause of ileus, pancreatitis, cholecystitis, and cholangitis.[5]

Symptoms of infection with T. asiatica

T. asiatica infection in human is usually asymptomatic. There was an isolated report of severe pathogenic lesions in a 60-year old woman admitted to Mackay Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. Using endoscopy she was diagnosed with multiple erosions and active bleeding from ulcers in the stomach and duodenum caused by a single tapeworm. A year later she returned with intermittent epigastric pain, which she reported having had for several months. Again a tapeworm was seen.[6] The tapeworm species was not identified but was suspected to be T. asiatica, because the woman ate pork liver at a festival, and the common pork tapeworm T. solium is mostly found in pig muscle.[7]

In pigs cysticercus has a tendency to produce cyticercosis. Cysts are formed in vital organs such as liver and lungs. In contrast T. saginata does not cause cysticercosis.[8] As its life cycle and mode of development are very similar to those of Taenia solium, which is the major cause of neurocysticercosis, a possibility that T. asiatica can cause cysticercosis in humans is highly conjectured.[9][10][11]


Transmission

Cysticercosis is usually contracted after eating undercooked contaminated pork. Taeniasis occurs after ingestion of contaminated food, water, or soil.[12]

Prevalence

It is found in Asia, Africa, Latin America, particularly on farms in which pigs are exposed to human excrement.

Diagnosis

Diagnosis of infection with T. saginata

The basic diagnosis is done from a stool sample. Feces are examined to find parasite eggs. The eggs look like other eggs from the family Taeniidae, so it is only possible to identify the eggs to the family, not to the species level. Since it is difficult to diagnose using eggs alone, looking at the scolex or the gravid proglottids can help identify it as Taenia saginata.[13] Proglottids sometimes trickle down the thighs of infected humans and are visible with unaided eye, so can aid with identification. Observation of scolex help distinguish between T. saginata, T. solium and T. asiatica. When the uterus is injected with India ink, its branches become visible. Counting the uterine branches enables some identification (T. saginata uteri have 12 or more branches on each side, while other species such as T. solium only have five to 10).[14]

Differentiation of the species of Taenia, such as T. solium and T. asiatica, is notoriously difficult because of their close morphological resemblance, and their eggs are more or less identical. Identification often requires histological observation of the uterine branches and PCR detection of ribosomal 5.8S gene.[15] The uuteri of T. saginata stem out from the center to form 12 to 20 branches, but in contrast to its closely related Taenia species, the branches are much less in number and comparatively thicker; in addition, the ovaries are bilobed and testes are twice as many.[16]

Eosinophilia and elevated IgE levels are chief hematological findings. Also Ziehl–Neelsen stain can be used to differentiate between mature T. saginata and T. solium, in most cases T. saginata will stain while T. solium will not, but the method is not strictly reliable.[17]

Diagnosis of infection with T. asiatica

The basic diagnosis is examination of a stool sample to find the parasite eggs. However there is a serious limitation as to the identification of the species because the eggs of all human taenids look the same. Even with the proglottids it is extremely difficult to identify T. asiatica from other taenids because of their striking resemblances. The species and T. saginata are frequently confused due to their morphological similarities and sympatric distribution. Identification often requires histological observation of the uterine branches and PCR detection of ribosomal 5.8S gene.[18][19] The presence of rostellum on the scolex, a large number of uretine branches (more than 57) and prominent posterior protuberances in gravid proglottids, and wart-like formation on the surface of the larvae are the distinguishing structures.

To date the most relevant diagnosis of taeniasis due to T. asiatica is by enzyme-linked immunoelectrotransfer blot (EITB). EITB can effectively identify it from other taenid infections since serological test indicates that immunoblot band of 21.5 kDa exhibited specificity only to T. asiatica.[20] Even though it gives 100% sensitivity, it has not been tested with human sera for cross-reactivity, and it may show a high false positive result. Loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) is highly sensitive (~2.5 times that of multiplex PCR), without false positive, for differentiating the taenid species from faecal samples.[21]

Prevention

Infection can be prevented through stricter meat-inspection standards, livestock confinement, improved hygiene and sanitation, health education, safe meat preparation, and identifying and treating human and pig carriers.[22]

The best way to avoid getting tapeworms is to not eat undercooked pork. Moreover, a high level of sanitation and prevention of faecal contamination of pig feeds also plays a major role in prevention. Infection can be prevented with proper disposal of human faeces around pigs, cooking meat thoroughly and/or freezing the meat at −10°C for 5 days. For human cysticercosis, dirty hands are attributed to be the primary cause, and especially common among food handlers.[23] Therefore, personal hygiene such as washing one's hands before eating is an effective measure.

Prevention for infection with T. saginata

Adequate cooking (56°C for 5 minutes) of beef viscera destroys cysticerci. Refrigeration, freezing (-10°C for 9 days) or long periods of salting is lethal to cysticerci. Inspection of beef and proper disposal of human excreta are also important measures.[4]

Treatment

Oral anti-parasitic drugs such as praziquantel are the treatment of choice. Treatment with praziquantel has been approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration and is quite effective against these parasites.[24]

Treatment for infection with T. saginata

Taenaisis is easily treated with praziquantel (5–10 mg/kg, single-administration) or niclosamide (adults and children over 6 years: 2 g, single-administration after a light breakfast, followed after 2 hours by a laxative; children aged 2–6 years: 1 g; children under 2 years: 500 mg).[4] Albendazole is also highly effective for treatment of cattle infection.[25]

Treatment of infection with T. asiatica

Niclosamide (2 mg) is very effective against experimental infection in human.[26] In general cestode infections are treated with praziquantel and albendazole. Atrabine is quite effective but indicates adverse effects in humans.[27] The commonly used drugs for tapeworms, benzimidazoles are relatively ineffective. Praziquantel at a single dose of 150 mg is the most effective medication against T. asiatica without causing side effects.[28]

Epidemiology

Epidemiology for infection with Taenia saginata

The disease is relatively common in Africa, some parts of Eastern Europe, the Philippines, and Latin America.[14] This parasite is found anywhere where beef is eaten, even in countries such as the United States, with strict federal sanitation policies. In the US, the incidence of infection is low, but 25% of cattle sold are still infected.[13] The total global infection is estimated to be between 40 and 60 million.[29] It is most prevalent in Sub-Saharan Africa and the Middle East.[30]

Epidemiology of infection with T. asiatica

The parasite is known in Asian countries including Taiwan, Korea, Indonesia, Nepal, Thailand and China. In addition, molecular genotyping techniques have revealed that the disease also occurs in Japan, the Philippines, and Vietnam.[31][32]

References

  1. ^ "Neglected Tropical Diseases". cdc.gov. June 6, 2011. Retrieved 28 November 2014.
  2. ^ a b "About Taeniasis/cysticercosis". Retrieved 13 March 2014.
  3. ^ "Signs, symptoms and treatment of taeniasis/cysticercosis". Retrieved 13 March 2014.
  4. ^ a b c "Taeniasis/Cysticercosis". WHO Fact sheet N°376. World Health Organization. 2013. Retrieved 7 February 2014.
  5. ^ Uygur-Bayramiçli, O; Ak, O; Dabak, R; Demirhan, G; Ozer, S (2012). "Taenia saginata a rare cause of acute cholangitis: a case report". Acta Clinica Belgica. 67 (6): 436–7. doi:10.1179/ACB.67.6.2062709. PMID 23340150.
  6. ^ Liao, Wen-Shen; Bair, Ming Jong (2007). "Taenia in the Gastrointestinal Tract". New England Journal of Medicine. 357 (10): 1028–1028. doi:10.1056/NEJMicm067761. PMID 17804847.
  7. ^ McManus, Donald P. (2008). "Taenia in the Gastrointestinal Tract". New England Journal of Medicine. 358 (3): 311–311. doi:10.1056/NEJMc072882. PMID 18199875.
  8. ^ Galán-Puchades, M.T.; Fuentes, M.V. (2008). "Taenia asiatica and pig cysticercosis". Veterinary Parasitology. 157 (1–2): 160–161. doi:10.1016/j.vetpar.2008.07.008. PMID 18752896.
  9. ^ Cite error: The named reference galan13 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  10. ^ Cite error: The named reference galan was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  11. ^ Galán-Puchades, M. T.; Fuentes, M. V. (2009). "Diagnosis of Human Cysticercosis and Taenia asiatica". American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 81 (6): 1165–1165. doi:10.4269/ajtmh.2009.09-0398a.
  12. ^ "Transmission of taeniasis/cysticercosis". Retrieved 13 March 2014.
  13. ^ a b Jr, Larry S. Roberts, John Janovy, (2009). Gerald D. Schmidt & Larry S. Roberts' Foundations of parasitology (8th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-128458-3.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  14. ^ a b Somers, Kenneth D.; Morse, Stephen A. (2010). Lange Microbiology and Infectious Diseases Flash Cards (2nd ed.). New York: Lange Medical Books/ McGraw-Hill. pp. 184–186. ISBN 9780071628792.
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  16. ^ Zarlenga DS. (1991). "The differentiation of a newly described Asian taeniid from Taenia saginata using enzymatically amplified non-transcribed ribosomal DNA repeat sequences". Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health. 22 (suppl): 251–255. PMID 1822899.
  17. ^ "Differentiating Taenia eggs found in human stools - Does Ziehl Neelsen staining help?". Tropical Medicine & International Health. 15 (9): 1077–1081. 2010. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3156.2010.02579.x. {{cite journal}}: Cite uses deprecated parameter |authors= (help)
  18. ^ González, LM; Montero, E; Harrison, LJ; Parkhouse, RM; Garate, T (2000). "Differential diagnosis of Taenia saginata and Taenia solium infection by PCR". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 38 (2): 737–44. PMC 86191. PMID 10655377.
  19. ^ Zarlenga, DS (1991). "The differentiation of a newly described Asian taeniid from Taenia saginata using enzymatically amplified non-transcribed ribosomal DNA repeat sequences". The Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Health. 22 Suppl: 251–5. PMID 1822899.
  20. ^ Jeon, Hyeong-Kyu; Eom, Keeseon S. (2009). "Immunoblot Patterns of Taenia asiatica Taeniasis". The Korean Journal of Parasitology. 47 (1): 73–7. doi:10.3347/kjp.2009.47.1.73. PMC 2655338. PMID 19290097.
  21. ^ Nkouawa, A; Sako, Y; Li, T; Chen, X; Wandra, T; Swastika, IK; Nakao, M; Yanagida, T; Nakaya, K; Qiu, D; Ito, A (2010). "Evaluation of a loop-mediated isothermal amplification method using fecal specimens for differential detection of Taenia species from humans". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 48 (9): 3350–2. doi:10.1128/JCM.00697-10. PMC 2937673. PMID 20631114.
  22. ^ "Surveillance, prevention and control of taeniasis/cysticercosis". Retrieved 13 March 2014.
  23. ^ Garcia, Oscar H. Del Brutto, Hector H. (2014). "Taenia solium: Biological Characteristics and Life Cycle". Cysticercosis of the Human Nervous System (1., 2014 ed.). Berlin: Springer-Verlag Berlin and Heidelberg GmbH & Co. KG. pp. 11–21. ISBN 978-3-642-39021-0.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  24. ^ http://www.dpd.cdc.gov/DPDx/
  25. ^ Lopes, Welber Daniel Zanetti (2014). "Historic of therapeutic efficacy of albendazol sulphoxide administered in different routes, dosages and treatment schemes, against Taenia saginata cysticercus in cattle experimentally infected". Experimental Parasitology. 137 (1): 14–20. doi:10.1016/j.exppara.2013.11.007. PMID 24309372. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
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  28. ^ Fan, PC; Chung, WC; Chan, CH; Chen, YA; Cheng, FY; Hsu, MC (1986). "Studies on taeniasis in Taiwan. V. Field trial on evaluation of therapeutic efficacy of mebendazole and praziquantel against taeniasis". The Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Health. 17 (1): 82–90. PMID 3738612.
  29. ^ Eckert, J. (2005). "Helminths". In Kayser, F.H., Bienz, K.A., Eckert, J., Zinkernagel, R.M. (ed.). Medical Microbiology. Stuttgart: Thieme. pp. 560–562. ISBN 9781588902450.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
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  32. ^ Ale, Anita; Victor, Bjorn; Praet, Nicolas; Gabriël, Sarah; Speybroeck, Niko; Dorny, Pierre; Devleesschauwer, Brecht (2014). "Epidemiology and genetic diversity of Taenia asiatica: a systematic review". Parasites & Vectors. 7 (1): 45. doi:10.1186/1756-3305-7-45. PMC 3900737. PMID 24450957.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)


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