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The tiny hooks on bur fruits ...

... inspired Velcro tape.

Biomimetics or biomimicry is the imitation of the models, systems, and elements of nature for the purpose of solving complex human problems.^[1] The terms "biomimetics" and "biomimicry" derive from Ancient Greek: βίος (bios), life, and μίμησις (mīmēsis), imitation, from μιμεῖσθαι (mīmeisthai), to imitate, from μῖμος (mimos), actor. A closely related field is bionics.^[2]

Living organisms have evolved well-adapted structures and materials over geological time through natural selection. Biomimetics has given rise to new technologies inspired by biological solutions at macro and nanoscales. Humans have looked at nature for answers to problems throughout our existence. Nature has solved engineering problems such as self-healing abilities, environmental exposure tolerance and resistance, hydrophobicity, self-assembly, and harnessing solar energy.

History

One of the early examples of would-be biomimicry was the study of birds to enable human flight. Although never successful in creating a "flying machine", Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) was a keen observer of the anatomy and flight of birds, and made numerous notes and sketches on his observations as well as sketches of "flying machines".^[3] The Wright Brothers, who succeeded in flying the first heavier-than-air aircraft in 1903, allegedly derived inspiration from observations of pigeons in flight.^[4]

During the 1950s the American biophysicist and polymath Otto Schmitt developed the concept of "biomimetics".^[5] During his doctoral research he developed the Schmitt trigger by studying the nerves in squid, attempting to engineer a device that replicated the biological system of nerve propagation.^[6]^{[need quotation to verify]} He continued to focus on devices that mimic natural systems and by 1957 he had perceived a converse to the standard view of biophysics at that time, a view he would come to call biomimetics.^[5]

Biophysics is not so much a subject matter as it is a point of view. It is an approach to problems of biological science utilizing the theory and technology of the physical sciences. Conversely, biophysics is also a biologist's approach to problems of physical science and engineering, although this aspect has largely been neglected.
— Otto Herbert Schmitt, In Appreciation, A Lifetime of Connections: Otto Herbert Schmitt, 1913 - 1998

In 1960 Jack E. Steele coined a similar term, bionics, at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base in Dayton, Ohio, where Otto Schmitt also worked. Steele defined bionics as "the science of systems which have some function copied from nature, or which represent characteristics of natural systems or their analogues".^[2]^[7] During a later meeting in 1963 Schmitt stated,

Let us consider what bionics has come to mean operationally and what it or some word like it (I prefer biomimetics) ought to mean in order to make good use of the technical skills of scientists specializing, or rather, I should say, despecializing into this area of research
— Otto Herbert Schmitt, In Appreciation, A Lifetime of Connections: Otto Herbert Schmitt, 1913 - 1998

In 1969 Schmitt used the term “biomimetic“ in the title one of his papers,^[8] and by 1974 it had found its way into Webster's Dictionary, bionics entered the same dictionary earlier in 1960 as "a science concerned with the application of data about the functioning of biological systems to the solution of engineering problems". Bionic took on a different connotation when Martin Caidin referenced Jack Steele and his work in the novel Cyborg which later resulted in the 1974 television series The Six Million Dollar Man and its spin-offs. The term bionic then became associated with "the use of electronically operated artificial body parts" and "having ordinary human powers increased by or as if by the aid of such devices".^[9] Because the term bionic took on the implication of supernatural strength, the scientific community in English speaking countries largely abandoned it.^[10]

The term biomimicry appeared as early as 1982.^[11] Biomimicry was popularized by scientist and author Janine Benyus in her 1997 book Biomimicry: Innovation Inspired by Nature. Biomimicry is defined in the book as a "new science that studies nature's models and then imitates or takes inspiration from these designs and processes to solve human problems". Benyus suggests looking to Nature as a "Model, Measure, and Mentor" and emphasizes sustainability as an objective of biomimicry.^[12]

Commercial applications

Fabrication

Electron micrograph of rod shaped TMV particles. — Scanning electron micrograph of rod shaped tobacco mosaic virus particles.

Biomorphic mineralization is a technique that produces materials with morphologies and structures resembling those of natural living organisms by using bio-structures as templates for mineralization. Compared to other methods of material production, biomorphic mineralization is facile, environmentally benign and economic.^[13]

Display technology

Morpho butterfly wings contain microstructures that create its coloring effect through structural coloration rather than pigmentation. Incident light waves are reflected at specific wavelengths to create vibrant colors due to multilayer interference, diffraction, thin film interference, and scattering properties.^[14] The scales of these butterflies consist of microstructures such as ridges, cross-ribs, ridge-lamellae, and microribs that have been shown to be responsible for coloration. The structural color has been simply explained as the interference due to alternating layers of cuticle and air using a model of multilayer interference. The same principles behind the coloration of soap bubbles apply to butterfly wings. The color of butterfly wings is due to multiple instances of constructive interference from structures such as this. The photonic microstructure of butterfly wings can be replicated through biomorphic mineralization to yield similar properties. The photonic microstructures can be replicated using metal oxides or metal alkoxides such as titanium sulfate (TiSO₄), zirconium oxide (ZrO₂), and aluminium oxide (Al₂O₃). An alternative method of vapor-phase oxidation of SiH4 on the template surface was found to preserve delicate structural features of the microstructure.^[15] A display technology ("Mirasol") based on the reflective properties of Morpho butterfly wings was commercialized by Qualcomm in 2007. The technology uses Interferometric Modulation to reflect light so only the desired color is visible in each individual pixel of the display.^[16]

Bio-inspired Applications

Biomimetics could in principle be applied in many fields. Because of the diversity and complexity of biological systems, the number of features that might be imitated is large. Biomimetic applications are at various stages of development from technologies that might become commercially usable to prototypes.^[17] Murray's law, which in conventional form determined the optimum diameter of blood vessels, has been re-derived to provide simple equations for the pipe or tube diameter which gives a minimum mass engineering system.^[18]

Locomotion

Aircraft wing design ^[3] and flight techniques^[19] are being inspired by birds and bats. Biorobots based on the physiology and methods of locomotion of animals include BionicKangaroo which moves like a kangaroo, saving energy from one jump and transferring it to its next jump^[20]. Kamigami Robots, a children's toy, mimic cockroach locomotion to run quickly and efficiently over indoor and outdoor surfaces ^[21].

File:Bionic Kangaroo.jpg

The BionicKangaroo reproduces the jumping locomotion of a kangaroo, bouncing to recover much of the energy of each jump.

Construction and architecture

Researchers studied the termite's ability to maintain virtually constant temperature and humidity in their termite mounds in Africa despite outside temperatures that vary from 1.5 °C to 40 °C (35 °F to 104 °F). Researchers initially scanned a termite mound and created 3-D images of the mound structure, which revealed construction that could influence human building design. The Eastgate Centre, a mid-rise office complex in Harare, Zimbabwe,^[22] stays cool without air conditioning and uses only 10% of the energy of a conventional building of the same size.

In structural engineering, the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (EPFL) has incorporated biomimetic characteristics in an adaptive deployable "tensegrity" bridge. The bridge can carry out self-diagnosis and self-repair.^[23] The arrangement of leaves on a plant has been adapted for better solar power collection.^[24]

Structural materials

There is a great need for new structural materials that are light weight but offer exceptional combinations of stiffness, strength and toughness.

Such materials would need to be manufactured into bulk materials with complex shapes at high volume and low cost and would serve a variety of fields such as construction, transportation, energy storage and conversion. In a classic design problem, strength and toughness are more likely to be mutually exclusive i.e., strong materials are brittle and tough materials are weak. However, natural materials with complex and hierarchical material gradients that span from nano- to macro-scales are both strong and tough. Generally, most natural materials utilize limited chemical components but complex material architectures that give rise to exceptional mechanical properties. Understanding the highly diverse and multi functional biological materials and discovering approaches to replicate such structures will lead to advanced and more efficient technologies. Bone, nacre (abalone shell), teeth, the dactyl clubs of stomatopod shrimps and bamboo are great examples of damage tolerant materials.^[25] The exceptional resistance to fracture of bone is due to complex deformation and toughening mechanisms that operate at spanning different size scales - nanoscale structure of protein molecules to macroscopic physiological scale.^[26]

Nacre exhibits similar mechanical properties however with rather simpler structure. Nacre shows a brick and mortar llike structure with thick mineral layer (0.2∼0.9-μm) of closely packed aragonite structures and thin organic matrix (∼20-nm).^[27] While thin films and micrometer sized samples that mimic these structures are already produced, successful production of bulk biomimetic structural materials is yet to be realized. However, numerous processing techniques have been proposed for producing nacre like materials.^[25]

Biomorphic mineralization is a technique that produces materials with morphologies and structures resembling those of natural living organisms by using bio-structures as templates for mineralization. Compared to other methods of material production, biomorphic mineralization is facile, environmentally benign and economic.^[13]

Freeze casting (Ice templating), an inexpensive method to mimic natural layered structures was employed by researchers at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory to create alumina-Al-Si and IT HAP-epoxy layered composites that match the mechanical properties of bone with an equivalent mineral/ organic content.^[28] Various further studies ^[29]^[30]^[31]^[32] also employed similar methods to produce high strength and high toughness composites involving a variety of constituent phases.

Recent studies demonstrated production of cohesive and self supporting macroscopic tissue constructs that mimic living tissues by printing tens of thousands of heterologous picoliter droplets in software-defined, 3D millimeter-scale geometries.^[33] Efforts are also taken up to mimic the design of nacre in artificial composite materials using fused deposition modelling ^[34] and the helicoidal structures of stomatopod clubs in the fabrication of high performance carbon fiber-epoxy composites.^[35]

Various established and novel additive manufacturing technologies like PolyJet printing, direct ink writing, 3D magnetic printing, multi-material magnetically assisted 3D printing and magnetically-assisted slip casting have also been utilized to mimic the complex micro-scale architectures of natural materials and provide huge scope for future research.^[36]

Spider web silk is as strong as the Kevlar used in bulletproof vests. Engineers could in principle use such a material, if it could be reengineered to have a long enough life, for parachute lines, suspension bridge cables, artificial ligaments for medicine, and other purposes.^[12] The self-sharpening teeth of many animals have been copied to make better cutting tools.^[37]

New ceramics that exhibit giant electret hysteresis have also been realized.^[38]

Self healing materials

In general in biological systems, self healing occurs via chemical signals released at the site of fracture which initiate a systemic response that transport repairing agents to the fracture site thereby promoting autonomic healing.^[39] To demonstrate the use of micro-vascular networks for autonomic healing, researchers developed a microvascular coating–substrate architecture that mimics human skin.^[40] Bio-inspired self-healing structural color hydrogels that maintain the stability of an inverse opal structure and its resultant structural colors were developed.^[41] A self-repairing membrane for inspired by rapid self-sealing processes in plants was developed for inflatable light weight structures such as rubber boats or Tensairity® constructions. The researchers applied a thin soft cellular polyurethane foam coating on the inside of a fabric substrate, which closes the crack if the membrane is punctured with a spike.^[42] Self-healing materials, polymers and composite materials capable of mending cracks have been produced based on biological materials.^[43]

Surfaces and Adhesion

Other research has proposed adhesive glue from mussels, fabric that emulates shark skin, harvesting water from fog like a beetle, and more.^[22]

Practical underwater adhesion is an engineering challenge since current technology is unable to stick surface strongly underwater because of barriers such as hydration layers and contaminants on surfaces. However, marine mussels can stick easily and efficiently to surfaces underwater under the harsh conditions of the ocean. They use strong filaments to adhere to rocks in the inter-tidal zones of wave-swept beaches, preventing them from being swept away in strong sea currents. Mussel foot proteins attach the filaments to rocks, boats and practically any surface in nature including other mussels. These proteins contain a mix of amino acid residues which has been adapted specifically for adhesive purposes. Researchers from the University of California Santa Barbara borrowed and simplified chemistries that the mussel foot uses to overcome this engineering challenge of wet adhesion to create copolyampholytes,^[44] and one-component adhesive systems^[45] with potential for employment in nanofabrication protocols.

Surfaces that recreate properties of shark skin are intended to enable more efficient movement through water.^[46] Tire treads have been inspired by the toe pads of tree frogs.^[47]

and climbing robots,^[48] boots and tape^[49] mimicking geckos feet and their ability for adhesive reversal.

Surface tension biomimetics are being researched for technologies such as hydrophobic or hydrophilic coatings and microactuators.^[50]^[51]^[52]^[53]^[54]

Optics

Biomimetic materials are gaining increasing attention in the field of optics and photonics. There are still little known bioinspired or biomimetic products involving the photonic properties of plants or animals. However, understanding how Nature designed such optical materials from biological resources is worth pursuing and might lead to future commercial products.

Inspiration from fruits and plants

For instance, the chiral self-assembly of cellulose inspired by the Pollia condensata berry has been exploited to make optically active films.^[55]^[56] Such films are made from cellulose which is a biodegradable and biobased ressource obtained from wood or cotton. The structural colours can potentially be everlasting and have more vibrant colour than the ones obtained from chemical absorption of light. Pollia condensata is not the only fruit showing a structural coloured skin, other berries such as Margaritaria nobilis does.^[57] These fruits show iridescent colors in the blue-green region of the visible spectrum which gives the fruit a strong metallic and shiny visual appearance.^[25] The structural colours come from the organisation of cellulose chains in the fruit's epicarp, a part of the fruit skin.^[25] Each cell of the epicarp is made of a multilayered envelope that behaves like a Bragg reflector. However, the light which is reflected from the skin of these fruits is not polarised unlike the one arising from man-made replicates obtained from the self-assembly of cellulose nanocrystals into helicoids, which only reflect left-handed circularly polarised light.^[58]

The fruit of Elaeocarpus angustifolius also show structural colour that come arises from the presence of specialised cells called iridosomes which have layered structures.^[25] Similar iridosomes have also been found in Delarbrea michieana fruits.^[25]

In plants, multi layer structures can be found either at the surface of the leaves (on top of the epidermis), such as in Selaginella willdenowii ^[25] or within specialized intra-cellular organelles, the so-called iridoplasts, which are located inside the cells of the upper epidermis.^[25] For instance, the rain forest plants Begonia pavonina have iridoplasts located inside the epidermal cells.^[25]

Structural colours have also been found in several algae, such as in the red alga Chondrus crispus (Irish Moss).^[59]

Inspiration from animals

The same principles behind the coloration of soap bubbles apply to butterfly wings and many beetle scales which can lead to potential applications in the future ^[60]^[61] .The scales of these animals consist of microstructures such as ridges, cross-ribs, ridge-lamellae, and microribs that have been shown to be responsible for coloration.

Morpho butterfly wings contain microstructures that create its coloring effect through structural coloration rather than pigmentation. The colour of butterfly wings is due to multiple instances of constructive interference from structures: incident light waves are reflected at specific wavelengths to create vibrant colors due to multilayer interference, diffraction, thin film interference, and scattering properties ^[14] .The structural color has been simply explained as the interference due to alternating layers of cuticle and air using a model of multilayer interference. The photonic microstructure of Morpho butterfly wings can be replicated through biomorphic mineralization or deposition of randomly sized silica microspheres to lead to similar optical properties ^[62].

The photonic microstructures can be replicated using metal oxides or metal alkoxides such as titanium sulfate (TiSO₄), zirconium oxide (ZrO₂), and aluminium oxide (Al₂O₃). An alternative method of vapor-phase oxidation of SiH4 on the template surface was found to preserve delicate structural features of the microstructure.^[63]

The manufacturer of high end cars Lotus have developed a paint that is said to mimic the structural blue colour of Morpho butterfly^[64].

Phase-separation has been used to fabricate ultra-white scattering membranes from polymethylmethacrylate, mimicking the extraordinary properties of the beetle Cyphochilus.^[65]

Display technology

The structural coloration of butterfly wings has been adapted to provide improved interferometric modulator displays.^[66] A display technology (called "Mirasol") based on the reflective properties of Morpho butterfly wings was commercialized by Qualcomm in 2007. The technology uses Interferometric Modulation to reflect light so only the desired color is visible in each individual pixel of the display.^[67]

Other applications

Protein folding has been used to control material formation for self-assembled functional nanostructures.^[68] Polar bear fur has inspired the design of thermal collectors and clothing.^[69] The light refractive properties of the moth's eye has been studied to reduce the reflectivity of solar panels.^[70]

The Bombardier beetle's powerful repellent spray inspired a Swedish company to develop a "micro mist" spray technology, which is claimed to have a low carbon impact (compared to aerosol sprays). The beetle mixes chemicals and releases its spray via a steerable nozzle at the end of its abdomen, stinging and confusing the victim.^[71]

Most viruses have an outer capsule 20 to 300 nm in diameter. Virus capsules are remarkably robust and capable of withstanding temperatures as high as 60 °C; they are stable across the pH range 2-10.^[13] Viral capsules can be used to create nano device components such as nanowires, nanotubes, and quantum dots. Tubular virus particles such as the tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) can be used as templates to create nanofibers and nanotubes, since both the inner and outer layers of the virus are charged surfaces which can induce nucleation of crystal growth.

This was demonstrated through the production of platinum and gold nanotubes using TMV as a template.^[72] Mineralized virus particles have been shown to withstand various pH values by mineralizing the viruses with different materials such as silicon, PbS, and CdS and could therefore serve as a useful carriers of material.^[73] A spherical plant virus called cowpea chlorotic mottle virus (CCMV) has interesting expanding properties when exposed to environments of pH higher than 6.5. Above this pH, 60 independent pores with diameters about 2 nm begin to exchange substance with the environment. The structural transition of the viral capsid can be utilized in Biomorphic mineralization for selective uptake and deposition of minerals by controlling the solution pH. Possible applications include using the viral cage to produce uniformly shaped and sized quantum dot semiconductor nanoparticles through a series of pH washes. This is an alternative to the apoferritin cage technique currently used to synthesize uniform CdSe nanoparticles.^[74] Such materials could also be used for targeted drug delivery since particles release contents upon exposure to specific pH levels.

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^ "Gecko Tape". Stanford University. Retrieved 17 July 2014.
^ Yuan, Zhiqing (15 November 2013). "A novel fabrication of a superhydrophobic surface with highly similar hierarchical structure of the lotus leaf on a copper sheet". Applied Surface Science. 285: 205–210. doi:10.1016/j.apsusc.2013.08.037.
^ Huh, Dongeun (25 June 2010). "Reconstituting Organ-Level Lung Functions on a Chip". Science. 328 (5986): 1662–1668. doi:10.1126/science.1188302. PMID 20576885.
^ Mayser, Matthias (12 June 2014). "Layers of Air in the Water beneath the Floating Fern Salvinia are Exposed to Fluctuations in Pressure". Integrative and Comparative Biology. 54: 1001–1007. doi:10.1093/icb/icu072.
^ Borno, Ruba (21 September 2006). "Transpiration actuation: the design, fabrication and characterization of biomimetic microactuators driven by the surface tension of water". Journal of Micromechanics and Microengineering. 16 (11): 2375–2383. doi:10.1088/0960-1317/16/11/018.
^ Garrod, R. (4 October 2006). "Mimicking a Stenocara Beetle's Back for Microcondensation Using Plasmachemical Patterned Superhydrophobic-Superhydrophilic Surfaces". Langmuir. 23 (2): 689–693. doi:10.1021/la0610856.
^ Vignolini, Silvia; Rudall, Paula J.; Rowland, Alice V.; Reed, Alison; Moyroud, Edwige; Faden, Robert B.; Baumberg, Jeremy J.; Glover, Beverley J.; Steiner, Ullrich (2012-09-25). "Pointillist structural color in Pollia fruit". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 109 (39): 15712–15715. doi:10.1073/pnas.1210105109. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 3465391. PMID 23019355.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
^ Dumanli, A. G.; van der Kooij, H. M.; Reisner, E.; Baumberg, J.J.; Steiner, U.; Vignolini, Silvia (2014). "Digital color in cellulose nanocrystal films". ACS applied materials & interfaces. 7 (15). doi:10.1021/am501995e.
^ Vignolini, Silvia; Gregory, Thomas; Kolle, Mathias; Lethbridge, Alfie; Moyroud, Edwige; Steiner, Ullrich; Glover, Beverley J.; Vukusic, Peter; Rudall, Paula J. (2016-11-01). "Structural colour from helicoidal cell-wall architecture in fruits of Margaritaria nobilis". Journal of The Royal Society Interface. 13 (124): 20160645. doi:10.1098/rsif.2016.0645. ISSN 1742-5689. PMC 5134016. PMID 28334698.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
^ Parker, Richard M.; Guidetti, Giulia; Williams, Cyan A.; Zhao, Tianheng; Narkevicius, Aurimas; Vignolini, Silvia; Frka-Petesic, Bruno (2017-12-18). "The Self-Assembly of Cellulose Nanocrystals: Hierarchical Design of Visual Appearance". Advanced Materials. 30 (19): 1704477. doi:10.1002/adma.201704477. ISSN 0935-9648.
^ Chandler, Chris J.; Wilts, Bodo D.; Vignolini, Silvia; Brodie, Juliet; Steiner, Ullrich; Rudall, Paula J.; Glover, Beverley J.; Gregory, Thomas; Walker, Rachel H. (2015-07-03). "Structural colour in Chondrus crispus". Scientific Reports. 5 (1). doi:10.1038/srep11645. ISSN 2045-2322.
^ Schroeder, Thomas B. H.; Houghtaling, Jared; Wilts, Bodo D.; Mayer, Michael (2018-03-08). "It's Not a Bug, It's a Feature: Functional Materials in Insects". Advanced Materials. 30 (19): 1705322. doi:10.1002/adma.201705322. ISSN 0935-9648.
^ Schenk, Franziska; Wilts, Bodo D; Stavenga, Doekele G (2013-11-21). "The Japanese jewel beetle: a painter's challenge". Bioinspiration & Biomimetics. 8 (4): 045002. doi:10.1088/1748-3182/8/4/045002. ISSN 1748-3182.
^ Song, Bokwang; Johansen, Villads Egede; Sigmund, Ole; Shin, Jung H. (2017-04-07). "Reproducing the hierarchy of disorder for Morpho-inspired, broad-angle color reflection". Scientific Reports. 7 (1). doi:10.1038/srep46023. ISSN 2045-2322.
^ Cook G., Timms P.L., Goltner-Spickermann C. Angew. "Chem Int Ed." 2003. 42:557.
^ "Structural Blue: Color Reimagined / Discover the Global World of Lexus". discoverlexus.com. Retrieved 2018-09-25.
^ Syurik, Julia; Jacucci, Gianni; Onelli, Olimpia D.; Holscher, Hendrik; Vignolini, Silvia (22 February 2018). "Bio-inspired Highly Scattering Networks via Polymer Phase Separation". Advanced Functional Materials. doi:10.1002/adfm.201706901.
^ IOP Science: structurally colored displays
^ Cathey, Jim (7 January 2010). "Nature Knows Best: What Burrs, Geckos and Termites Teach Us About Design". Qualcomm. Retrieved 24 August 2015.
^ Self-assembled nanostructures
^ Stegmaier, Thomas; Linke, Michael; Planck, Heinrich (29 March 2009). "Bionics in textiles: flexible and translucent thermal insulations for solar thermal applications". Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A. 367 (1894): 1749–1758. doi:10.1098/rsta.2009.0019.
^ Wilson, S.J. Wilson; Hutley, M.C. (1982). "The Optical Properties of 'Moth Eye' Antireflection Surfaces". Journal of Modern Optics. 29 (7): 993–1009. doi:10.1080/713820946.
^ Swedish Biomimetics: The μMist Platform Technology Archived December 13, 2013, at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 3 June 2012.
^ Dujardin E., Peet C. "Nano Letters" 2003. 3:413.
^ Shenton W. Douglas, Young M. "Advanced Materials" 1999. 11:253.
^ Ischiro Yamashita, Junko Hayashi, Mashahiko Hara. "Bio-template Synthesis of Uniform CdSe Nanoparticles Using Cage-shaped Protein, Apoferritin." Chemistry Letters (2004). Volume: 33, Issue: 9. 1158–1159.

External links

Template:Z148

Biomimetics MIT
Sex, Velcro and Biomimicry with Janine Benyus
Janine Benyus: Biomimicry in Action from TED 2009
Design by Nature - National Geographic
Michael Pawlyn: Using nature's genius in architecture from TED 2010
Robert Full shows how human engineers can learn from animals' tricks from TED 2002
The Fast Draw: Biomimicry from CBS News

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[McCarty-2] Mary McCarty. "Life of bionics founder a fine adventure". Dayton Daily News, 29 January 2009.

[Romei_2008_56-3] Cite error: The named reference Romei 2008 56 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

[4] Compare: Howard, Fred (1998). Wilbur and Orville: A Biography of the Wright Brothers. Dober Publications. p. 33. ISBN 978-0-486-40297-0. According to Wilbur, he and his brother discovered the birds' method of lateral control one day while observing a flight of pigeons. [...] 'Although we intently watched birds fly in a hope of learning something from them,' [Orville] wrote in 1941, 'I cannot think of anything that was first learned in that way.'

[Vincent2006-5] Vincent, Julian F.V.; Bogatyreva, Olga A.; Bogatyrev, Nikolaj R.; Bowyer, Adrian; Pahl, Anja-Karina (21 August 2006). "Biomimetics: its practice and theory". Journal of The Royal Society Interface. 3 (9): 471–482. doi:10.1098/rsif.2006.0127. PMC 1664643. PMID 16849244.

[6] "Otto H. Schmitt, Como People of the Past". Connie Sullivan, Como History Article.

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[8] Schmitt O. Third Int. Biophysics Congress. 1969. Some interesting and useful biomimetic transforms. p. 297.

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[15] Cook G., Timms P.L., Goltner-Spickermann C. Angew. "Chem Int Ed." 2003. 42:557.

[16] Cathey, Jim (7 January 2010). "Nature Knows Best: What Burrs, Geckos and Termites Teach Us About Design". Qualcomm. Retrieved 24 August 2015.

[17] Bhushan, Bharat (15 March 2009). "Biomimetics: lessons from nature-an overview". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. 367 (1893): 1445–1486. doi:10.1098/rsta.2009.0011.

[williams-18] Williams, Hugo R.; Trask, Richard S.; Weaver, Paul M.; Bond, Ian P. (2008). "Minimum mass vascular networks in multifunctional materials". Journal of the Royal Society Interface. 5 (18): 55–65. doi:10.1098/rsif.2007.1022. PMC 2605499. PMID 17426011.

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[21] "Robotics Highlight: Kamigami Cockroach Inspired Robotics". CRA. 2016-07-18. Retrieved 2017-05-16.

[BI-22] Biomimicry Examples — Biomimicry Institute

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[26] Launey, Maximilien E.; Buehler, Markus J.; Ritchie, Robert O. (2010-06). "On the Mechanistic Origins of Toughness in Bone". Annual Review of Materials Research. 40 (1): 25–53. doi:10.1146/annurev-matsci-070909-104427. ISSN 1531-7331. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)

[27] Wang, Rizhi; Gupta, Himadri S. (2011-08-04). "Deformation and Fracture Mechanisms of Bone and Nacre". Annual Review of Materials Research. 41 (1): 41–73. doi:10.1146/annurev-matsci-062910-095806. ISSN 1531-7331.

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[29] Munch, E.; Launey, M. E.; Alsem, D. H.; Saiz, E.; Tomsia, A. P.; Ritchie, R. O. (2008-12-05). "Tough, Bio-Inspired Hybrid Materials". Science. 322 (5907): 1516–1520. doi:10.1126/science.1164865. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 19056979.

[30] Liu, Qiang; Ye, Feng; Gao, Ye; Liu, Shichao; Yang, Haixia; Zhou, Zhiqiang (2014-02). "Fabrication of a new SiC/2024Al co-continuous composite with lamellar microstructure and high mechanical properties". Journal of Alloys and Compounds. 585: 146–153. doi:10.1016/j.jallcom.2013.09.140. ISSN 0925-8388. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)

[31] Roy, Siddhartha; Butz, Benjamin; Wanner, Alexander (2010-04). "Damage evolution and domain-level anisotropy in metal/ceramic composites exhibiting lamellar microstructures". Acta Materialia. 58 (7): 2300–2312. doi:10.1016/j.actamat.2009.12.015. ISSN 1359-6454. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)

[32] Bouville, Florian; Maire, Eric; Meille, Sylvain; Van de Moortèle, Bertrand; Stevenson, Adam J.; Deville, Sylvain (2014-03-23). "Strong, tough and stiff bioinspired ceramics from brittle constituents". Nature Materials. 13 (5): 508–514. doi:10.1038/nmat3915. ISSN 1476-1122.

[33] Villar, Gabriel; Graham, Alexander D.; Bayley, Hagan (2013-04-05). "A Tissue-Like Printed Material". Science. 340 (6128): 48–52. doi:10.1126/science.1229495. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 23559243.

[34] Espinosa, Horacio D.; Juster, Allison L.; Latourte, Felix J.; Loh, Owen Y.; Gregoire, David; Zavattieri, Pablo D. (2011-02-01). "Tablet-level origin of toughening in abalone shells and translation to synthetic composite materials". Nature Communications. 2 (1). doi:10.1038/ncomms1172. ISSN 2041-1723.

[35] "Bio-inspired impact-resistant composites". Acta Biomaterialia. 10 (9): 3997–4008. 2014-09-01. doi:10.1016/j.actbio.2014.03.022. ISSN 1742-7061.

[36] Studart, André R. (2016). "Additive manufacturing of biologically-inspired materials". Chemical Society Reviews. 45 (2): 359–376. doi:10.1039/c5cs00836k. ISSN 0306-0012.

[37] Killian, Christopher E. (2010). "Self-Sharpening Mechanism of the Sea Urchin Tooth". Advanced Functional Materials. 21: 682–690. doi:10.1002/adfm.201001546.

[38] Yao, Y.; Wang, Q.; Wang, H.; Zhang, B.; Zhao, C.; Wang, Z.; Xu, Z.; Wu, Y.; Huang, W.; Qian, P.-Y.; Zhang, X. X. (2013). "Bio-Assembled Nanocomposites in Conch Shells Exhibit Giant Electret Hysteresis". Adv. Mater. 25: 711–718. doi:10.1002/adma.201202079.

[39] Youngblood, Jeffrey P.; Sottos, Nancy R. (2008/08). "Bioinspired Materials for Self-Cleaning and Self-Healing". MRS Bulletin. 33 (8): 732–741. doi:10.1557/mrs2008.158. ISSN 1938-1425. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)

[40] Toohey, Kathleen S.; Sottos, Nancy R.; Lewis, Jennifer A.; Moore, Jeffrey S.; White, Scott R. (2007-06-10). "Self-healing materials with microvascular networks". Nature Materials. 6 (8): 581–585. doi:10.1038/nmat1934. ISSN 1476-1122. {{cite journal}}: no-break space character in |title= at position 42 (help)

[41] Fu, Fanfan; Chen, Zhuoyue; Zhao, Ze; Wang, Huan; Shang, Luoran; Gu, Zhongze; Zhao, Yuanjin (2017-06-06). "Bio-inspired self-healing structural color hydrogel". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 114 (23): 5900–5905. doi:10.1073/pnas.1703616114. ISSN 0027-8424. PMID 28533368.

[42] Rampf, Markus; Speck, Olga; Speck, Thomas; Luchsinger, Rolf H. (2011-09). "Self-Repairing Membranes for Inflatable Structures Inspired by a Rapid Wound Sealing Process of Climbing Plants". Journal of Bionic Engineering. 8 (3): 242–250. doi:10.1016/s1672-6529(11)60028-0. ISSN 1672-6529. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)

[43] Zang, M. Q. (2008). "Self healing in polymers and polymer composites. Concepts, realization and outlook: A review". Polymer Letters. 2 (4): 238–250. doi:10.3144/expresspolymlett.2008.29.

[44] Seo, Sungbaek; Das, Saurabh; Zalicki, Piotr J.; Mirshafian, Razieh; Eisenbach, Claus D.; Israelachvili, Jacob N.; Waite, J. Herbert; Ahn, B. Kollbe (2015-07-29). "Microphase Behavior and Enhanced Wet-Cohesion of Synthetic Copolyampholytes Inspired by a Mussel Foot Protein". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 137 (29): 9214–9217. doi:10.1021/jacs.5b03827. ISSN 0002-7863. PMID 26172268.

[45] Ahn, B. Kollbe; Das, Saurabh; Linstadt, Roscoe; Kaufman, Yair; Martinez-Rodriguez, Nadine R.; Mirshafian, Razieh; Kesselman, Ellina; Talmon, Yeshayahu; Lipshutz, Bruce H. (2015-10-19). "High-performance mussel-inspired adhesives of reduced complexity". Nature Communications. 6: 8663. doi:10.1038/ncomms9663. PMC 4667698. PMID 26478273.

[46] "'Inspired by Nature'". Sharklet Technologies Inc. 2010. Retrieved 6 June 2014.

[47] Tire treads inspired by tree frogs

[48] Gecko-like robot scampers up the wall – tech – 23 May 2006 – New Scientist Tech

[49] "Gecko Tape". Stanford University. Retrieved 17 July 2014.

[50] Yuan, Zhiqing (15 November 2013). "A novel fabrication of a superhydrophobic surface with highly similar hierarchical structure of the lotus leaf on a copper sheet". Applied Surface Science. 285: 205–210. doi:10.1016/j.apsusc.2013.08.037.

[51] Huh, Dongeun (25 June 2010). "Reconstituting Organ-Level Lung Functions on a Chip". Science. 328 (5986): 1662–1668. doi:10.1126/science.1188302. PMID 20576885.

[52] Mayser, Matthias (12 June 2014). "Layers of Air in the Water beneath the Floating Fern Salvinia are Exposed to Fluctuations in Pressure". Integrative and Comparative Biology. 54: 1001–1007. doi:10.1093/icb/icu072.

[53] Borno, Ruba (21 September 2006). "Transpiration actuation: the design, fabrication and characterization of biomimetic microactuators driven by the surface tension of water". Journal of Micromechanics and Microengineering. 16 (11): 2375–2383. doi:10.1088/0960-1317/16/11/018.

[54] Garrod, R. (4 October 2006). "Mimicking a Stenocara Beetle's Back for Microcondensation Using Plasmachemical Patterned Superhydrophobic-Superhydrophilic Surfaces". Langmuir. 23 (2): 689–693. doi:10.1021/la0610856.

[55] Vignolini, Silvia; Rudall, Paula J.; Rowland, Alice V.; Reed, Alison; Moyroud, Edwige; Faden, Robert B.; Baumberg, Jeremy J.; Glover, Beverley J.; Steiner, Ullrich (2012-09-25). "Pointillist structural color in Pollia fruit". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 109 (39): 15712–15715. doi:10.1073/pnas.1210105109. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 3465391. PMID 23019355.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link)

[56] Dumanli, A. G.; van der Kooij, H. M.; Reisner, E.; Baumberg, J.J.; Steiner, U.; Vignolini, Silvia (2014). "Digital color in cellulose nanocrystal films". ACS applied materials & interfaces. 7 (15). doi:10.1021/am501995e.

[57] Vignolini, Silvia; Gregory, Thomas; Kolle, Mathias; Lethbridge, Alfie; Moyroud, Edwige; Steiner, Ullrich; Glover, Beverley J.; Vukusic, Peter; Rudall, Paula J. (2016-11-01). "Structural colour from helicoidal cell-wall architecture in fruits of Margaritaria nobilis". Journal of The Royal Society Interface. 13 (124): 20160645. doi:10.1098/rsif.2016.0645. ISSN 1742-5689. PMC 5134016. PMID 28334698.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link)

[58] Parker, Richard M.; Guidetti, Giulia; Williams, Cyan A.; Zhao, Tianheng; Narkevicius, Aurimas; Vignolini, Silvia; Frka-Petesic, Bruno (2017-12-18). "The Self-Assembly of Cellulose Nanocrystals: Hierarchical Design of Visual Appearance". Advanced Materials. 30 (19): 1704477. doi:10.1002/adma.201704477. ISSN 0935-9648.

[59] Chandler, Chris J.; Wilts, Bodo D.; Vignolini, Silvia; Brodie, Juliet; Steiner, Ullrich; Rudall, Paula J.; Glover, Beverley J.; Gregory, Thomas; Walker, Rachel H. (2015-07-03). "Structural colour in Chondrus crispus". Scientific Reports. 5 (1). doi:10.1038/srep11645. ISSN 2045-2322.

[60] Schroeder, Thomas B. H.; Houghtaling, Jared; Wilts, Bodo D.; Mayer, Michael (2018-03-08). "It's Not a Bug, It's a Feature: Functional Materials in Insects". Advanced Materials. 30 (19): 1705322. doi:10.1002/adma.201705322. ISSN 0935-9648.

[61] Schenk, Franziska; Wilts, Bodo D; Stavenga, Doekele G (2013-11-21). "The Japanese jewel beetle: a painter's challenge". Bioinspiration & Biomimetics. 8 (4): 045002. doi:10.1088/1748-3182/8/4/045002. ISSN 1748-3182.

[62] Song, Bokwang; Johansen, Villads Egede; Sigmund, Ole; Shin, Jung H. (2017-04-07). "Reproducing the hierarchy of disorder for Morpho-inspired, broad-angle color reflection". Scientific Reports. 7 (1). doi:10.1038/srep46023. ISSN 2045-2322.

[63] Cook G., Timms P.L., Goltner-Spickermann C. Angew. "Chem Int Ed." 2003. 42:557.

[64] "Structural Blue: Color Reimagined / Discover the Global World of Lexus". discoverlexus.com. Retrieved 2018-09-25.

[65] Syurik, Julia; Jacucci, Gianni; Onelli, Olimpia D.; Holscher, Hendrik; Vignolini, Silvia (22 February 2018). "Bio-inspired Highly Scattering Networks via Polymer Phase Separation". Advanced Functional Materials. doi:10.1002/adfm.201706901.

[66] IOP Science: structurally colored displays

[67] Cathey, Jim (7 January 2010). "Nature Knows Best: What Burrs, Geckos and Termites Teach Us About Design". Qualcomm. Retrieved 24 August 2015.

[68] Self-assembled nanostructures

[69] Stegmaier, Thomas; Linke, Michael; Planck, Heinrich (29 March 2009). "Bionics in textiles: flexible and translucent thermal insulations for solar thermal applications". Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A. 367 (1894): 1749–1758. doi:10.1098/rsta.2009.0019.

[70] Wilson, S.J. Wilson; Hutley, M.C. (1982). "The Optical Properties of 'Moth Eye' Antireflection Surfaces". Journal of Modern Optics. 29 (7): 993–1009. doi:10.1080/713820946.

[71] Swedish Biomimetics: The μMist Platform Technology Archived December 13, 2013, at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 3 June 2012.

[Dujardin-72] Dujardin E., Peet C. "Nano Letters" 2003. 3:413.

[Shenton-73] Shenton W. Douglas, Young M. "Advanced Materials" 1999. 11:253.

[74] Ischiro Yamashita, Junko Hayashi, Mashahiko Hara. "Bio-template Synthesis of Uniform CdSe Nanoparticles Using Cage-shaped Protein, Apoferritin." Chemistry Letters (2004). Volume: 33, Issue: 9. 1158–1159.

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@@ Line 48: / Line 48: @@
 <!--do not add anything here without a citation, or that is not in actual commercial use – it will be removed-->
+== Bio-inspired Applications  ==
-==Possible future applications==
+Biomimetics could in principle be applied in many fields. Because of the diversity and complexity of biological systems, the number of features that might be imitated is large. Biomimetic applications are at various stages of development from technologies that might become commercially usable to prototypes.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bhushan|first1=Bharat|date=15 March 2009|title=Biomimetics: lessons from nature-an overview|url=http://rsta.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/367/1893/1445.full|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences|volume=367|issue=1893|pages=1445–1486|doi=10.1098/rsta.2009.0011}}</ref> [[Murray's law]], which in conventional form determined the optimum diameter of blood vessels, has been re-derived to provide simple equations for the pipe or tube diameter which gives a minimum mass engineering system.<ref name="williams">{{cite journal|last=Williams|first=Hugo R.|author2=Trask, Richard S.|author3=Weaver, Paul M.|author4=Bond, Ian P.|year=2008|title=Minimum mass vascular networks in multifunctional materials|url=http://rsif.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/5/18/55.full|journal=Journal of the Royal Society Interface|volume=5|issue=18|pages=55–65|doi=10.1098/rsif.2007.1022|pmc=2605499|pmid=17426011}}</ref>
-[[File:Leonardo Design for a Flying Machine, c. 1488.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Leonardo da Vinci]]'s [[Science and inventions of Leonardo da Vinci#Flight|design for a flying machine]] with wings based closely upon the structure of bat wings.]]
+=== Locomotion ===
-Biomimetics could in principle be applied in many fields. Because of the complexity of biological systems, the number of features that might be imitated is large. Biomimetic applications are at various stages of development from technologies that might become commercially usable to prototypes.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bhushan|first1=Bharat|title=Biomimetics: lessons from nature-an overview|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences|date=15 March 2009|volume=367|issue=1893|pages=1445–1486|doi=10.1098/rsta.2009.0011|url=http://rsta.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/367/1893/1445.full}}</ref>
+Aircraft wing design <ref name="Romei 2008 56" /> and flight techniques<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn24951-drone-with-legs-can-perch-watch-and-walk-like-a-bird.html#.U0lxhuZdWcI|title=Drone with legs can perch, watch and walk like a bird|date=27 January 2014|work=Tech|publisher=New Scientist|accessdate=17 July 2014}}</ref> are being inspired by birds and bats. [[Biorobotics|Biorobots]] based on the physiology and methods of [[animal locomotion|locomotion of animals]] include [[BionicKangaroo]] which moves like a kangaroo, saving energy from one jump and transferring it to its next jump<ref>{{cite web|url=http://spectrum.ieee.org/automaton/robotics/robotics-hardware/festo-newest-robot-is-a-hopping-bionic-kangaroo|title=''Festo's Newest Robot Is a Hopping Bionic Kangaroo''|last1=Ackerman|first1=Evan|date=2 Apr 2014|website=spectrum.ieee.org|publisher=[[IEEE Spectrum]]|access-date=17 Apr 2014}}</ref>. [[Dash Robotics, Inc|Kamigami Robots,]] a children's toy, mimic cockroach locomotion to run quickly and efficiently over indoor and outdoor surfaces <ref>{{Cite news|url=http://cra.org/robotics-highlight-kamigami-cockroach-inspired-robotics/|title=Robotics Highlight: Kamigami Cockroach Inspired Robotics|date=2016-07-18|work=CRA|access-date=2017-05-16|language=en-US}}</ref>.
+[[File:Bionic Kangaroo.jpg|thumb|The [[BionicKangaroo]] reproduces the [[animal locomotion#Jumping|jumping locomotion]] of a [[kangaroo]], bouncing to recover much of the energy of each jump.]]
-===Prototypes===
+=== Construction and architecture ===
-Researchers studied the [[termite]]'s ability to maintain virtually constant temperature and humidity in their [[termite mound]]s in Africa despite outside temperatures that vary from 1.5&nbsp;°C to 40&nbsp;°C (35&nbsp;°F to 104&nbsp;°F).  Researchers initially scanned a termite mound and created 3-D images of the mound structure, which revealed construction that could influence human [[building design]]. The [[Eastgate Centre, Harare|Eastgate Centre]], a mid-rise office complex in [[Harare]], [[Zimbabwe]],<ref name=BI>[http://biomimicry.org/biomimicry-examples#architecture Biomimicry Examples — Biomimicry Institute]</ref> stays cool without air conditioning and uses only 10% of the energy of a conventional building of the same size.
+Researchers studied the [[termite]]'s ability to maintain virtually constant temperature and humidity in their [[termite mound]]s in Africa despite outside temperatures that vary from 1.5&nbsp;°C to 40&nbsp;°C (35&nbsp;°F to 104&nbsp;°F).  Researchers initially scanned a termite mound and created 3-D images of the mound structure, which revealed construction that could influence human [[building design]]. The [[Eastgate Centre, Harare|Eastgate Centre]], a mid-rise office complex in [[Harare]], [[Zimbabwe]],<ref name="BI">[http://biomimicry.org/biomimicry-examples#architecture Biomimicry Examples — Biomimicry Institute]</ref> stays cool without air conditioning and uses only 10% of the energy of a conventional building of the same size.
-In structural engineering, the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology ([[EPFL]]) has incorporated biomimetic characteristics in an adaptive deployable "tensegrity" bridge. The bridge can carry out self-diagnosis and self-repair.<ref name="korkmaz">{{cite journal | last=Korkmaz|first=Sinan |author2=Bel Hadj Ali, Nizar |author3=Smith, Ian F.C. | title=Determining Control Strategies for Damage Tolerance of an Active Tensegrity Structure | journal= Engineering Structures | doi=10.1016/j.engstruct.2011.02.031 | volume=33 | pages=1930–1939 | year=2011 | url =http://infoscience.epfl.ch/record/164609/files/Korkmaz%20et%20al,%20Determining%20Control%20Strategies%20for%20Damage%20Tolerance%20of%20an%20Active%20Tensegrity%20Structure,%20Engineering%20Structures%20(2011)_2.pdf | issue=6 }}</ref>
+In structural engineering, the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology ([[EPFL]]) has incorporated biomimetic characteristics in an adaptive deployable "tensegrity" bridge. The bridge can carry out self-diagnosis and self-repair.<ref name="korkmaz">{{cite journal|last=Korkmaz|first=Sinan|author2=Bel Hadj Ali, Nizar|author3=Smith, Ian F.C.|year=2011|title=Determining Control Strategies for Damage Tolerance of an Active Tensegrity Structure|url=http://infoscience.epfl.ch/record/164609/files/Korkmaz%20et%20al,%20Determining%20Control%20Strategies%20for%20Damage%20Tolerance%20of%20an%20Active%20Tensegrity%20Structure,%20Engineering%20Structures%20(2011)_2.pdf|journal=Engineering Structures|volume=33|issue=6|pages=1930–1939|doi=10.1016/j.engstruct.2011.02.031}}</ref> The [[phyllotaxy|arrangement of leaves on a plant]] has been adapted for better solar power collection.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.amnh.org/learn-teach/young-naturalist-awards/winning-essays2/2011-winning-essays/the-secret-of-the-fibonacci-sequence-in-trees|title=The Secret of the Fibonacci Sequence in Trees|date=1 May 2014|work=2011 Winning Essays|publisher=[[American Museum of Natural History]]|accessdate=17 July 2014}}</ref>
+=== Structural materials ===
-<!--do not add anything here without a citation – it will be removed-->
+There is a great need for new structural materials that are light weight but offer exceptional combinations of [[stiffness]], strength and [[toughness]].  [[File:Leonardo Design for a Flying Machine, c. 1488.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Leonardo da Vinci]]'s [[Science and inventions of Leonardo da Vinci#Flight|design for a flying machine]] with wings based closely upon the structure of bat wings.]]
+Such materials would need to be manufactured into bulk materials with complex shapes at high volume and low cost and would serve a variety of fields such as construction, transportation, energy storage and conversion. In a classic design problem, strength and toughness are more likely to be mutually exclusive i.e., strong materials are brittle and tough materials are weak. However, natural materials with complex and hierarchical material gradients that span from [[Nanoscopic scale|nano]]- to macro-scales are both strong and tough. Generally, most natural materials utilize limited chemical components but complex material architectures that give rise to exceptional mechanical properties. Understanding the highly diverse and multi functional biological materials and discovering approaches to replicate such structures will lead to advanced and more efficient technologies. [[Bone]], [[nacre]] (abalone shell), teeth, the dactyl clubs of stomatopod shrimps and bamboo are great examples of damage tolerant materials.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Wegst|first=Ulrike G. K.|last2=Bai|first2=Hao|last3=Saiz|first3=Eduardo|last4=Tomsia|first4=Antoni P.|last5=Ritchie|first5=Robert O.|date=2014-10-26|title=Bioinspired structural materials|url=http://www.nature.com/articles/nmat4089|journal=Nature Materials|language=En|volume=14|issue=1|pages=23–36|doi=10.1038/nmat4089|issn=1476-1122}}</ref> The exceptional resistance to [[fracture]] of bone is due to complex deformation and toughening mechanisms that operate at spanning different size scales - nanoscale structure of protein molecules to macroscopic physiological scale.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Launey|first=Maximilien E.|last2=Buehler|first2=Markus J.|last3=Ritchie|first3=Robert O.|date=2010-06|title=On the Mechanistic Origins of Toughness in Bone|url=https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev-matsci-070909-104427|journal=Annual Review of Materials Research|language=en|volume=40|issue=1|pages=25–53|doi=10.1146/annurev-matsci-070909-104427|issn=1531-7331}}</ref>
+[[Nacre]] exhibits similar mechanical properties however with rather simpler structure. Nacre shows a brick and mortar llike structure with thick mineral layer (0.2∼0.9-μm) of closely packed aragonite structures and thin organic matrix (∼20-nm).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Rizhi|last2=Gupta|first2=Himadri S.|date=2011-08-04|title=Deformation and Fracture Mechanisms of Bone and Nacre|url=https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/full/10.1146/annurev-matsci-062910-095806|journal=Annual Review of Materials Research|language=en|volume=41|issue=1|pages=41–73|doi=10.1146/annurev-matsci-062910-095806|issn=1531-7331}}</ref> While thin films and micrometer sized samples that mimic these structures are already produced, successful production of bulk biomimetic structural materials is yet to be realized. However, numerous processing techniques have been proposed for producing nacre like materials.<ref name=":0" />
-===Technologies===
+[[Biomineralization|Biomorphic mineralization]] is a technique that produces materials with morphologies and structures resembling those of natural living organisms by using bio-structures as templates for mineralization.  Compared to other methods of material production, biomorphic mineralization is facile, environmentally benign and economic.<ref name="Tong">Tong-Xiang, Suk-Kwun, Di Zhang. "Biomorphic Mineralization: From biology to materials." State Key Lab of Metal Matrix Composites. Shanghai: Shanghai Jiaotong University, n.d. 545-1000.</ref>
-Practical underwater adhesion is an engineering challenge since current technology is unable to stick surface strongly underwater because of barriers such as hydration layers and contaminants on surfaces. However, marine [[mussel]]s can stick easily and efficiently to surfaces underwater under the harsh conditions of the ocean. They use strong filaments to adhere to rocks in the inter-tidal zones of wave-swept beaches, preventing them from being swept away in strong sea currents. Mussel foot proteins attach the filaments to rocks, boats and practically any surface in nature including other mussels. These proteins contain a mix of [[amino acid]] residues which has been adapted specifically for [[adhesive]] purposes. Researchers from the University of California Santa Barbara borrowed and simplified chemistries that the mussel foot uses to overcome this engineering challenge of wet adhesion to create copolyampholytes,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Microphase Behavior and Enhanced Wet-Cohesion of Synthetic Copolyampholytes Inspired by a Mussel Foot Protein|url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jacs.5b03827|journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society|date=2015-07-29|issn=0002-7863|pages=9214–9217|volume=137|issue=29|doi=10.1021/jacs.5b03827|first=Sungbaek|last=Seo|first2=Saurabh|last2=Das|first3=Piotr J.|last3=Zalicki|first4=Razieh|last4=Mirshafian|first5=Claus D.|last5=Eisenbach|first6=Jacob N.|last6=Israelachvili|first7=J. Herbert|last7=Waite|first8=B. Kollbe|last8=Ahn|pmid=26172268}}</ref> and one-component adhesive systems<ref>{{Cite journal|title=High-performance mussel-inspired adhesives of reduced complexity|url=http://www.nature.com/ncomms/2015/151019/ncomms9663/full/ncomms9663.html|journal=Nature Communications|date=2015-10-19|volume=6|doi=10.1038/ncomms9663|language=en|first=B. Kollbe|last=Ahn|first2=Saurabh|last2=Das|first3=Roscoe|last3=Linstadt|first4=Yair|last4=Kaufman|first5=Nadine R.|last5=Martinez-Rodriguez|first6=Razieh|last6=Mirshafian|first7=Ellina|last7=Kesselman|first8=Yeshayahu|last8=Talmon|first9=Bruce H.|last9=Lipshutz|pages=8663|pmid=26478273|pmc=4667698}}</ref> with potential for employment in [[nanofabrication]] protocols.
+[[Freeze-casting|Freeze casting]] (Ice templating), an inexpensive method to mimic natural layered structures was employed by researchers at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory to create alumina-Al-Si and IT HAP-epoxy layered composites that match the mechanical properties of bone with an equivalent mineral/ organic content.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Deville|first=Sylvain|last2=Saiz|first2=Eduardo|last3=Nalla|first3=Ravi K.|last4=Tomsia|first4=Antoni P.|date=2006-01-27|title=Freezing as a Path to Build Complex Composites|url=http://science.sciencemag.org/content/311/5760/515|journal=Science|language=en|volume=311|issue=5760|pages=515–518|doi=10.1126/science.1120937|issn=0036-8075|pmid=16439659}}</ref> Various further studies <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Munch|first=E.|last2=Launey|first2=M. E.|last3=Alsem|first3=D. H.|last4=Saiz|first4=E.|last5=Tomsia|first5=A. P.|last6=Ritchie|first6=R. O.|date=2008-12-05|title=Tough, Bio-Inspired Hybrid Materials|url=http://science.sciencemag.org/content/322/5907/1516|journal=Science|language=en|volume=322|issue=5907|pages=1516–1520|doi=10.1126/science.1164865|issn=0036-8075|pmid=19056979}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Liu|first=Qiang|last2=Ye|first2=Feng|last3=Gao|first3=Ye|last4=Liu|first4=Shichao|last5=Yang|first5=Haixia|last6=Zhou|first6=Zhiqiang|date=2014-02|title=Fabrication of a new SiC/2024Al co-continuous composite with lamellar microstructure and high mechanical properties|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0925838813023037|journal=Journal of Alloys and Compounds|volume=585|pages=146–153|doi=10.1016/j.jallcom.2013.09.140|issn=0925-8388}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Roy|first=Siddhartha|last2=Butz|first2=Benjamin|last3=Wanner|first3=Alexander|date=2010-04|title=Damage evolution and domain-level anisotropy in metal/ceramic composites exhibiting lamellar microstructures|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2009.12.015|journal=Acta Materialia|volume=58|issue=7|pages=2300–2312|doi=10.1016/j.actamat.2009.12.015|issn=1359-6454}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bouville|first=Florian|last2=Maire|first2=Eric|last3=Meille|first3=Sylvain|last4=Van de Moortèle|first4=Bertrand|last5=Stevenson|first5=Adam J.|last6=Deville|first6=Sylvain|date=2014-03-23|title=Strong, tough and stiff bioinspired ceramics from brittle constituents|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nmat3915|journal=Nature Materials|language=En|volume=13|issue=5|pages=508–514|doi=10.1038/nmat3915|issn=1476-1122}}</ref> also employed similar methods to produce high strength and high toughness composites involving a variety of constituent phases.  [[File:Bruchfläche eines Perlmuttstücks.JPG|thumb|Electron microscopy image of a fractured surface of nacre|alt=]]Recent studies demonstrated production of cohesive and self supporting macroscopic tissue constructs that mimic [[Tissue (biology)|living tissues]] by printing tens of thousands of heterologous picoliter droplets in software-defined, 3D millimeter-scale geometries.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Villar|first=Gabriel|last2=Graham|first2=Alexander D.|last3=Bayley|first3=Hagan|date=2013-04-05|title=A Tissue-Like Printed Material|url=http://science.sciencemag.org/content/340/6128/48|journal=Science|language=en|volume=340|issue=6128|pages=48–52|doi=10.1126/science.1229495|issn=0036-8075|pmid=23559243}}</ref> Efforts are also taken up to mimic the design of nacre in artificial [[Composite material|composite materials]] using fused deposition modelling <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Espinosa|first=Horacio D.|last2=Juster|first2=Allison L.|last3=Latourte|first3=Felix J.|last4=Loh|first4=Owen Y.|last5=Gregoire|first5=David|last6=Zavattieri|first6=Pablo D.|date=2011-02-01|title=Tablet-level origin of toughening in abalone shells and translation to synthetic composite materials|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms1172|journal=Nature Communications|language=En|volume=2|issue=1|doi=10.1038/ncomms1172|issn=2041-1723}}</ref>  and the helicoidal structures of [[Mantis shrimp|stomatopod]] clubs in the fabrication of high performance [[Carbon fibers|carbon fiber]]-epoxy composites.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2014-09-01|title=Bio-inspired impact-resistant composites|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1742706114001330|journal=Acta Biomaterialia|language=en|volume=10|issue=9|pages=3997–4008|doi=10.1016/j.actbio.2014.03.022|issn=1742-7061}}</ref>
-[[Spider]] web silk is as strong as the [[Kevlar]] used in [[Ballistic vest|bulletproof vests]]. Engineers could in principle use such a material, if it could be reengineered to have a long enough life, for parachute lines, suspension bridge cables, artificial ligaments for medicine, and other purposes.<ref name="Benyus 1997"/> Other research has proposed adhesive glue from [[mussel]]s, solar cells made like leaves, fabric that emulates [[shark]] skin, harvesting water from fog like a [[beetle]], and more.<ref name=BI/> [[Murray's law]], which in conventional form determined the optimum diameter of blood vessels, has been re-derived to provide simple equations for the pipe or tube diameter which gives a minimum mass engineering system.<ref name="williams">{{cite journal | last=Williams|first=Hugo R. |author2=Trask, Richard S. |author3=Weaver, Paul M. |author4=Bond, Ian P. | title=Minimum mass vascular networks in multifunctional materials | journal=Journal of the Royal Society Interface | doi=10.1098/rsif.2007.1022 | volume=5 | pages=55–65 | year=2008 | url=http://rsif.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/5/18/55.full | pmid=17426011 | issue=18 | pmc=2605499}}</ref> Aircraft wing design <ref name="Romei 2008 56">{{Cite book | last=Romei | first=Francesca | title=Leonardo Da Vinci | publisher=The Oliver Press  | year=2008 | location=| page=56 | isbn=978-1-934545-00-3}}</ref> and flight techniques<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn24951-drone-with-legs-can-perch-watch-and-walk-like-a-bird.html#.U0lxhuZdWcI |title=Drone with legs can perch, watch and walk like a bird |work=Tech |publisher=New Scientist |date=27 January 2014 |accessdate=17 July 2014}}</ref> are being inspired by birds and bats.
+Various established and novel additive manufacturing technologies like PolyJet printing, direct ink writing, 3D magnetic printing, multi-material magnetically assisted 3D printing and magnetically-assisted [[Slipcasting|slip casting]] have also been utilized to mimic the complex micro-scale architectures of natural materials and provide huge scope for future research.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Studart|first=André R.|date=2016|title=Additive manufacturing of biologically-inspired materials|url=http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/ArticleLanding/2016/CS/C5CS00836K|journal=Chemical Society Reviews|language=en|volume=45|issue=2|pages=359–376|doi=10.1039/c5cs00836k|issn=0306-0012}}</ref>
-[[File:Bionic Kangaroo.jpg|thumb|The [[BionicKangaroo]] reproduces the [[animal locomotion#Jumping|jumping locomotion]] of a [[kangaroo]], bouncing to recover much of the energy of each jump.]]
+[[Spider]] web silk is as strong as the [[Kevlar]] used in [[Ballistic vest|bulletproof vests]]. Engineers could in principle use such a material, if it could be reengineered to have a long enough life, for parachute lines, suspension bridge cables, artificial ligaments for medicine, and other purposes.<ref name="Benyus 1997" /> The self-sharpening teeth of many animals have been copied to make better cutting tools.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Killian|first1=Christopher E.|year=2010|title=Self-Sharpening Mechanism of the Sea Urchin Tooth|journal=Advanced Functional Materials|volume=21|pages=682–690|doi=10.1002/adfm.201001546}}</ref>
-[[Biorobotics|Biorobots]] based on the physiology and methods of [[animal locomotion|locomotion of animals]] include [[BionicKangaroo]] which moves like a kangaroo, saving energy from one jump and transferring it to its next jump,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://spectrum.ieee.org/automaton/robotics/robotics-hardware/festo-newest-robot-is-a-hopping-bionic-kangaroo |title=''Festo's Newest Robot Is a Hopping Bionic Kangaroo'' |last1=Ackerman |first1=Evan |date=2 Apr 2014 |website=spectrum.ieee.org |publisher=[[IEEE Spectrum]] |access-date=17 Apr 2014}}</ref> and climbing robots,<ref>[http://www.newscientisttech.com/channel/tech/mg19025526.500.html Gecko-like robot scampers up the wall – tech – 23 May 2006 – New Scientist Tech]</ref> boots and tape<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stanford.edu/group/mota/education/Physics%2087N%20Final%20Projects/Group%20Gamma/gecko.htm |title=Gecko Tape |publisher=[[Stanford University]] |accessdate=17 July 2014}}</ref> [[Synthetic setae|mimicking geckos feet and their ability for adhesive reversal]]. [[Dash Robotics, Inc|Kamigami Robots,]] a children's toy, mimic cockroach locomotion to run quickly and efficiently over indoor and outdoor surfaces.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://cra.org/robotics-highlight-kamigami-cockroach-inspired-robotics/|title=Robotics Highlight: Kamigami Cockroach Inspired Robotics|date=2016-07-18|work=CRA|access-date=2017-05-16|language=en-US}}</ref> [[Sharklet (material)|Nanotechnology surfaces]] that recreate properties of [[Dermal denticle#Placoid scales|shark skin]] are intended to enable more efficient movement through water.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://sharklet.com/technology/ | title='Inspired by Nature' | publisher=Sharklet Technologies Inc | date=2010 | accessdate=6 June 2014}}</ref>  Tire treads have been inspired by the toe pads of [[tree frog]]s.<ref>[http://iopscience.iop.org/0953-8984/19/37/376110 Tire treads inspired by tree frogs]</ref> The self-sharpening teeth of many animals have been copied to make better cutting tools.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1002/adfm.201001546 | volume=21 | title=Self-Sharpening Mechanism of the Sea Urchin Tooth | year=2010 | journal=Advanced Functional Materials | pages=682–690 | last1=Killian | first1=Christopher E.}}</ref> [[Protein folding]] has been used to control material formation for [[Molecular self-assembly|self-assembled functional nanostructures]].<ref>[http://www.jnanobiotechnology.com/content/12/1/4 Self-assembled nanostructures]</ref> The [[structural coloration]] of butterfly wings has been adapted to provide improved [[interferometric modulator display]]s and everlasting colours.<ref>[http://iopscience.iop.org/1468-6996/12/6/064709 IOP Science: structurally colored displays]</ref> New ceramics copy the properties of seashells.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Yao | first1=Y. | last2=Wang | first2=Q. | last3=Wang | first3=H. | last4=Zhang | first4=B. | last5=Zhao | first5=C. | last6=Wang | first6=Z. | last7=Xu | first7=Z. | last8=Wu | first8=Y. | last9=Huang | first9=W. | last10=Qian | first10=P.-Y. | last11=Zhang | first11=X. X. | year=2013 | title=Bio-Assembled Nanocomposites in Conch Shells Exhibit Giant Electret Hysteresis | journal=Adv. Mater. | volume=25 | pages=711–718 | doi=10.1002/adma.201202079 }}</ref> Polar bear fur has inspired the design of thermal collectors and clothing.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://rsta.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/367/1894/1749|title=Bionics in textiles: flexible and translucent thermal insulations for solar thermal applications |last1=Stegmaier |first1=Thomas |last2=Linke |first2=Michael |last3=Planck |first3=Heinrich |date=29 March 2009 |doi=10.1098/rsta.2009.0019 |journal=Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A |volume=367 |issue=1894 |pages=1749–1758}}</ref> The [[phyllotaxy|arrangement of leaves on a plant]] has been adapted for better solar power collection.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.amnh.org/learn-teach/young-naturalist-awards/winning-essays2/2011-winning-essays/the-secret-of-the-fibonacci-sequence-in-trees |title=The Secret of the Fibonacci Sequence in Trees |work=2011 Winning Essays |publisher=[[American Museum of Natural History]] |date=1 May 2014 |accessdate=17 July 2014}}</ref> The light refractive properties of the moth's eye has been studied to reduce the reflectivity of solar panels.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Wilson, S.J. Wilson |author2=Hutley, M.C. | title=The Optical Properties of 'Moth Eye' Antireflection Surfaces | journal=Journal of Modern Optics | volume=29 | issue=7 | pages=993–1009| year=1982 | doi=10.1080/713820946}}</ref> [[Self-healing material]]s, [[polymer]]s and [[composite material]]s capable of mending cracks have been produced based on biological materials.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Self healing in polymers and polymer composites. Concepts, realization and outlook: A review |journal=Polymer Letters |year=2008 |volume=2 |pages=238–250 |doi=10.3144/expresspolymlett.2008.29 |author=Zang, M. Q. |issue=4}}</ref>
+New ceramics that exhibit giant electret hysteresis have also been realized.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Yao|first1=Y.|last2=Wang|first2=Q.|last3=Wang|first3=H.|last4=Zhang|first4=B.|last5=Zhao|first5=C.|last6=Wang|first6=Z.|last7=Xu|first7=Z.|last8=Wu|first8=Y.|last9=Huang|first9=W.|year=2013|title=Bio-Assembled Nanocomposites in Conch Shells Exhibit Giant Electret Hysteresis|journal=Adv. Mater.|volume=25|pages=711–718|doi=10.1002/adma.201202079|last10=Qian|first10=P.-Y.|last11=Zhang|first11=X. X.}}</ref>
-The [[Bombardier beetle]]'s powerful repellent spray inspired a Swedish company to develop a "micro mist" spray technology, which is claimed to have a low carbon impact (compared to aerosol sprays). The beetle mixes chemicals and releases its spray via a steerable nozzle at the end of its abdomen, stinging and confusing the victim.<ref>[http://www.swedishbiomimetics.com/biomimetics_folder.pdf Swedish Biomimetics: The &mu;Mist Platform Technology] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131213022851/http://www.swedishbiomimetics.com/biomimetics_folder.pdf |date=December 13, 2013 }}. Retrieved 3 June 2012.</ref>
+=== Self healing materials ===
-Most [[virus]]es have an outer capsule 20 to 300&nbsp;nm in diameter. Virus capsules are remarkably robust and capable of withstanding temperatures as high as 60&nbsp;°C; they are stable across the [[pH]] range 2-10.<ref name="Tong" /> Viral capsules can be used to create nano device components such as nanowires, nanotubes, and quantum dots. Tubular virus particles such as the [[tobacco mosaic virus]] (TMV) can be used as templates to create nanofibers and nanotubes, since both the inner and outer layers of the virus are charged surfaces which can induce nucleation of crystal growth. This was demonstrated through the production of [[platinum]] and [[gold]] nanotubes using TMV as a template.<ref name="Dujardin">Dujardin E., Peet C. "Nano Letters" 2003. 3:413.</ref>  Mineralized virus particles have been shown to withstand various pH values by mineralizing the viruses with different materials such as silicon, [[Lead(II) sulfide|PbS]], and [[Cadmium sulfide|CdS]] and could therefore serve as a useful carriers of material.<ref name="Shenton">Shenton W. Douglas, Young M. "Advanced Materials" 1999. 11:253.</ref>  A spherical plant virus called [[cowpea chlorotic mottle virus]] (CCMV) has interesting expanding properties when exposed to environments of pH higher than 6.5.  Above this pH, 60 independent pores with diameters about 2&nbsp;nm begin to exchange substance with the environment.  The structural transition of the viral capsid can be utilized in [[Biomineralization|Biomorphic mineralization]] for selective uptake and deposition of minerals by controlling the solution pH.  Possible applications include using the viral cage to produce uniformly shaped and sized quantum dot [[semiconductor]] nanoparticles through a series of pH washes.  This is an alternative to the [[Ferritin|apoferritin]] cage technique currently used to synthesize uniform CdSe nanoparticles.<ref>Ischiro Yamashita, Junko Hayashi, Mashahiko Hara. "Bio-template Synthesis of Uniform CdSe Nanoparticles Using Cage-shaped Protein, Apoferritin." Chemistry Letters (2004). Volume: 33, Issue: 9. 1158–1159.</ref> Such materials could also be used for targeted drug delivery since particles release contents upon exposure to specific pH levels.
+In general in biological systems, [[Self-healing|self healing]] occurs via chemical signals released at the site of fracture which initiate a systemic response that transport repairing agents to the fracture site thereby promoting autonomic healing.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Youngblood|first=Jeffrey P.|last2=Sottos|first2=Nancy R.|date=2008/08|title=Bioinspired Materials for Self-Cleaning and Self-Healing|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/mrs-bulletin/article/bioinspired-materials-for-selfcleaning-and-selfhealing/29F8CA92E947B59A75AC90BDC783DF60|journal=MRS Bulletin|language=en|volume=33|issue=8|pages=732–741|doi=10.1557/mrs2008.158|issn=1938-1425}}</ref> To demonstrate the use of micro-vascular networks for autonomic healing, researchers developed a microvascular coating–substrate architecture that mimics human skin.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Toohey|first=Kathleen S.|last2=Sottos|first2=Nancy R.|last3=Lewis|first3=Jennifer A.|last4=Moore|first4=Jeffrey S.|last5=White|first5=Scott R.|date=2007-06-10|title=Self-healing materials with microvascular networks|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nmat1934|journal=Nature Materials|language=En|volume=6|issue=8|pages=581–585|doi=10.1038/nmat1934|issn=1476-1122}}</ref> Bio-inspired self-healing structural color hydrogels that maintain the stability of an inverse opal structure and its resultant structural colors were developed.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fu|first=Fanfan|last2=Chen|first2=Zhuoyue|last3=Zhao|first3=Ze|last4=Wang|first4=Huan|last5=Shang|first5=Luoran|last6=Gu|first6=Zhongze|last7=Zhao|first7=Yuanjin|date=2017-06-06|title=Bio-inspired self-healing structural color hydrogel|url=http://www.pnas.org/content/114/23/5900|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|language=en|volume=114|issue=23|pages=5900–5905|doi=10.1073/pnas.1703616114|issn=0027-8424|pmid=28533368}}</ref> A self-repairing membrane for inspired by rapid self-sealing processes in plants was developed for inflatable light weight structures such as rubber boats or Tensairity® constructions. The researchers applied a thin soft cellular polyurethane foam coating on the inside of a fabric substrate, which closes the crack if the membrane is punctured with a spike.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rampf|first=Markus|last2=Speck|first2=Olga|last3=Speck|first3=Thomas|last4=Luchsinger|first4=Rolf H.|date=2011-09|title=Self-Repairing Membranes for Inflatable Structures Inspired by a Rapid Wound Sealing Process of Climbing Plants|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1672652911600280|journal=Journal of Bionic Engineering|volume=8|issue=3|pages=242–250|doi=10.1016/s1672-6529(11)60028-0|issn=1672-6529}}</ref> [[Self-healing material]]s, [[polymer]]s and [[composite material]]s capable of mending cracks have been produced based on biological materials.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Zang, M. Q.|year=2008|title=Self healing in polymers and polymer composites. Concepts, realization and outlook: A review|journal=Polymer Letters|volume=2|issue=4|pages=238–250|doi=10.3144/expresspolymlett.2008.29}}</ref>
+=== Surfaces and Adhesion ===
-[[Surface tension biomimetics]] are being researched for technologies such as [[hydrophobic]] or [[hydrophilic]] coatings and microactuators.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Yuan |first1=Zhiqing|title=A novel fabrication of a superhydrophobic surface with highly similar hierarchical structure of the lotus leaf on a copper sheet|journal=Applied Surface Science|date=15 November 2013 |volume=285 |pages=205–210 |doi=10.1016/j.apsusc.2013.08.037}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Huh|first1=Dongeun |title=Reconstituting Organ-Level Lung Functions on a Chip|journal=Science |date=25 June 2010|volume=328 |issue=5986 |pages=1662–1668 |doi=10.1126/science.1188302 |pmid=20576885}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Mayser |first1=Matthias |title=Layers of Air in the Water beneath the Floating Fern Salvinia are Exposed to Fluctuations in Pressure |journal=Integrative and Comparative Biology |date=12 June 2014|volume=54 |doi=10.1093/icb/icu072 |pages=1001–1007}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Borno|first1=Ruba |title=Transpiration actuation: the design, fabrication and characterization of biomimetic microactuators driven by the surface tension of water|journal=Journal of Micromechanics and Microengineering|date=21 September 2006 |volume=16|issue=11 |pages=2375–2383 |doi=10.1088/0960-1317/16/11/018}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Garrod |first1=R.|title=Mimicking a Stenocara Beetle’s Back for Microcondensation Using Plasmachemical Patterned Superhydrophobic-Superhydrophilic Surfaces|journal=Langmuir|date=4 October 2006|volume= 23|issue= 2|pages=689–693|doi=10.1021/la0610856}}</ref>
+Other research has proposed adhesive glue from [[mussel]]s, fabric that emulates [[shark]] skin, harvesting water from fog like a [[beetle]], and more.<ref name="BI" />
+Practical underwater adhesion is an engineering challenge since current technology is unable to stick surface strongly underwater because of barriers such as hydration layers and contaminants on surfaces. However, marine [[mussel]]s can stick easily and efficiently to surfaces underwater under the harsh conditions of the ocean. They use strong filaments to adhere to rocks in the inter-tidal zones of wave-swept beaches, preventing them from being swept away in strong sea currents. Mussel foot proteins attach the filaments to rocks, boats and practically any surface in nature including other mussels. These proteins contain a mix of [[amino acid]] residues which has been adapted specifically for [[adhesive]] purposes. Researchers from the University of California Santa Barbara borrowed and simplified chemistries that the mussel foot uses to overcome this engineering challenge of wet adhesion to create copolyampholytes,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Seo|first=Sungbaek|last2=Das|first2=Saurabh|last3=Zalicki|first3=Piotr J.|last4=Mirshafian|first4=Razieh|last5=Eisenbach|first5=Claus D.|last6=Israelachvili|first6=Jacob N.|last7=Waite|first7=J. Herbert|last8=Ahn|first8=B. Kollbe|date=2015-07-29|title=Microphase Behavior and Enhanced Wet-Cohesion of Synthetic Copolyampholytes Inspired by a Mussel Foot Protein|url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jacs.5b03827|journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society|volume=137|issue=29|pages=9214–9217|doi=10.1021/jacs.5b03827|issn=0002-7863|pmid=26172268}}</ref> and one-component adhesive systems<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ahn|first=B. Kollbe|last2=Das|first2=Saurabh|last3=Linstadt|first3=Roscoe|last4=Kaufman|first4=Yair|last5=Martinez-Rodriguez|first5=Nadine R.|last6=Mirshafian|first6=Razieh|last7=Kesselman|first7=Ellina|last8=Talmon|first8=Yeshayahu|last9=Lipshutz|first9=Bruce H.|date=2015-10-19|title=High-performance mussel-inspired adhesives of reduced complexity|url=http://www.nature.com/ncomms/2015/151019/ncomms9663/full/ncomms9663.html|journal=Nature Communications|language=en|volume=6|pages=8663|doi=10.1038/ncomms9663|pmc=4667698|pmid=26478273}}</ref> with potential for employment in [[nanofabrication]] protocols.
+[[Sharklet (material)|Surfaces]] that recreate properties of [[Dermal denticle#Placoid scales|shark skin]] are intended to enable more efficient movement through water.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sharklet.com/technology/|title='Inspired by Nature'|date=2010|publisher=Sharklet Technologies Inc|accessdate=6 June 2014}}</ref>  Tire treads have been inspired by the toe pads of [[tree frog]]s.<ref>[http://iopscience.iop.org/0953-8984/19/37/376110 Tire treads inspired by tree frogs]</ref>
+and climbing robots,<ref>[http://www.newscientisttech.com/channel/tech/mg19025526.500.html Gecko-like robot scampers up the wall – tech – 23 May 2006 – New Scientist Tech]</ref> boots and tape<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stanford.edu/group/mota/education/Physics%2087N%20Final%20Projects/Group%20Gamma/gecko.htm|title=Gecko Tape|publisher=[[Stanford University]]|accessdate=17 July 2014}}</ref> [[Synthetic setae|mimicking geckos feet and their ability for adhesive reversal]].
+[[Surface tension biomimetics]] are being researched for technologies such as [[hydrophobic]] or [[hydrophilic]] coatings and microactuators.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Yuan|first1=Zhiqing|date=15 November 2013|title=A novel fabrication of a superhydrophobic surface with highly similar hierarchical structure of the lotus leaf on a copper sheet|journal=Applied Surface Science|volume=285|pages=205–210|doi=10.1016/j.apsusc.2013.08.037}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Huh|first1=Dongeun|date=25 June 2010|title=Reconstituting Organ-Level Lung Functions on a Chip|journal=Science|volume=328|issue=5986|pages=1662–1668|doi=10.1126/science.1188302|pmid=20576885}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Mayser|first1=Matthias|date=12 June 2014|title=Layers of Air in the Water beneath the Floating Fern Salvinia are Exposed to Fluctuations in Pressure|journal=Integrative and Comparative Biology|volume=54|pages=1001–1007|doi=10.1093/icb/icu072}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Borno|first1=Ruba|date=21 September 2006|title=Transpiration actuation: the design, fabrication and characterization of biomimetic microactuators driven by the surface tension of water|journal=Journal of Micromechanics and Microengineering|volume=16|issue=11|pages=2375–2383|doi=10.1088/0960-1317/16/11/018}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Garrod|first1=R.|date=4 October 2006|title=Mimicking a Stenocara Beetle’s Back for Microcondensation Using Plasmachemical Patterned Superhydrophobic-Superhydrophilic Surfaces|journal=Langmuir|volume=23|issue=2|pages=689–693|doi=10.1021/la0610856}}</ref>
+=== Optics ===
+{{Further|Structural coloration|Patterns in nature|Biophotonics}}[[Biomimetic material]]s are gaining increasing attention in the field of [[optics]] and [[photonics]]. There are still little known bioinspired or biomimetic products involving the photonic properties of plants or animals. However, understanding how Nature designed such optical materials from biological resources is worth pursuing and might lead to future commercial products.
+[[File:Macroscopic picture of a film of cellulose nanocrystal suspension cast on a Petri dish (diameter 3.5cm)..jpg|right|thumb|Macroscopic picture of a film of cellulose nanocrystal suspension cast on a [[Petri dish]] (diameter: 3.5cm).]]
+==== Inspiration from fruits and plants ====
+For instance, the chiral [[self-assembly]] of cellulose inspired by the [[Pollia condensata|''Pollia condensata'']] berry has been exploited to make optically active films.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Vignolini|first=Silvia|last2=Rudall|first2=Paula J.|last3=Rowland|first3=Alice V.|last4=Reed|first4=Alison|last5=Moyroud|first5=Edwige|last6=Faden|first6=Robert B.|last7=Baumberg|first7=Jeremy J.|last8=Glover|first8=Beverley J.|last9=Steiner|first9=Ullrich|date=2012-09-25|title=Pointillist structural color in Pollia fruit|url=http://www.pnas.org/content/109/39/15712|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|language=en|volume=109|issue=39|pages=15712–15715|doi=10.1073/pnas.1210105109|issn=0027-8424|pmc=PMC3465391|pmid=23019355}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Dumanli|first1=A. G.|last2=van der Kooij|first2=H. M.|last3=Reisner|first3=E.|last4=Baumberg|first4=J.J.|last5=Steiner|first5=U.|last6=Vignolini|first6=Silvia|date=2014|title=Digital color in cellulose nanocrystal films|journal=ACS applied materials & interfaces|volume=7|issue=15|doi=10.1021/am501995e}}</ref> Such films are made from cellulose which is a biodegradable and biobased ressource obtained from wood or cotton. The structural colours can potentially be everlasting and have more vibrant colour than the ones obtained from chemical absorption of light. [[Pollia condensata|''Pollia condensata'']] is not the only fruit showing a structural coloured skin, other berries such as [[Margaritaria nobilis|''Margaritaria nobilis'']] does.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Vignolini|first=Silvia|last2=Gregory|first2=Thomas|last3=Kolle|first3=Mathias|last4=Lethbridge|first4=Alfie|last5=Moyroud|first5=Edwige|last6=Steiner|first6=Ullrich|last7=Glover|first7=Beverley J.|last8=Vukusic|first8=Peter|last9=Rudall|first9=Paula J.|date=2016-11-01|title=Structural colour from helicoidal cell-wall architecture in fruits of Margaritaria nobilis|url=http://rsif.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/13/124/20160645|journal=Journal of The Royal Society Interface|language=en|volume=13|issue=124|pages=20160645|doi=10.1098/rsif.2016.0645|issn=1742-5689|pmc=PMC5134016|pmid=28334698}}</ref> These fruits show [[Iridescence|iridescent]] colors in the blue-green region of the visible spectrum which gives the fruit a strong metallic and shiny visual appearance.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Vignolini|first=Silvia|last2=Moyroud|first2=Edwige|last3=Glover|first3=Beverley J.|last4=Steiner|first4=Ullrich|date=2013-10-06|title=Analysing photonic structures in plants|url=http://rsif.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/10/87/20130394|journal=Journal of The Royal Society Interface|language=en|volume=10|issue=87|pages=20130394|doi=10.1098/rsif.2013.0394|issn=1742-5689|pmc=PMC3758000|pmid=23883949}}</ref> The structural colours come from the organisation of cellulose chains in the fruit's [[Fruit anatomy|epicarp]], a part of the fruit skin.<ref name=":0" /> Each cell of the epicarp is made of a multilayered envelope that behaves like a [[Bragg reflector]]. However, the light which is reflected from the skin of these fruits is not polarised unlike the one arising from man-made replicates obtained from the self-assembly of cellulose nanocrystals into helicoids, which only reflect left-handed [[Circular polarization|circularly polarised light]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Parker|first=Richard M.|last2=Guidetti|first2=Giulia|last3=Williams|first3=Cyan A.|last4=Zhao|first4=Tianheng|last5=Narkevicius|first5=Aurimas|last6=Vignolini|first6=Silvia|last7=Frka-Petesic|first7=Bruno|date=2017-12-18|title=The Self-Assembly of Cellulose Nanocrystals: Hierarchical Design of Visual Appearance|url=https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201704477|journal=Advanced Materials|language=en|volume=30|issue=19|pages=1704477|doi=10.1002/adma.201704477|issn=0935-9648}}</ref>
+The fruit of [[Elaeocarpus angustifolius]] also show structural colour that come arises from the presence of specialised cells called iridosomes which have layered structures.<ref name=":0" /> Similar iridosomes have also been found in [[Delarbrea]] michieana fruits.<ref name=":0" />
+In plants, multi layer structures can be found either at the surface of the leaves (on top of the epidermis), such as in [[Selaginella willdenowii]] <ref name=":0" /> or within specialized intra-cellular [[Organelle|organelles]], the so-called iridoplasts, which are located inside the cells of the upper epidermis.<ref name=":0" /> For instance, the rain forest plants Begonia pavonina have iridoplasts located inside the epidermal cells.<ref name=":0" />
+Structural colours have also been found in several algae, such as in the red alga [[Chondrus crispus]] (Irish Moss).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chandler|first=Chris J.|last2=Wilts|first2=Bodo D.|last3=Vignolini|first3=Silvia|last4=Brodie|first4=Juliet|last5=Steiner|first5=Ullrich|last6=Rudall|first6=Paula J.|last7=Glover|first7=Beverley J.|last8=Gregory|first8=Thomas|last9=Walker|first9=Rachel H.|date=2015-07-03|title=Structural colour in Chondrus crispus|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/srep11645|journal=Scientific Reports|language=En|volume=5|issue=1|doi=10.1038/srep11645|issn=2045-2322}}</ref>
+==== Inspiration from animals ====
+[[File:Morpho didius Male Dos MHNT.jpg|thumb|alt=Morpho butterfly.|Vibrant blue color of ''[[Morpho]]'' butterfly due to [[structural coloration]].]]The same principles behind the coloration of [[soap bubble]]s apply to butterfly wings and many beetle scales which can lead to potential applications in the future <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schroeder|first=Thomas B. H.|last2=Houghtaling|first2=Jared|last3=Wilts|first3=Bodo D.|last4=Mayer|first4=Michael|date=2018-03-08|title=It's Not a Bug, It's a Feature: Functional Materials in Insects|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/adma.201705322|journal=Advanced Materials|language=en|volume=30|issue=19|pages=1705322|doi=10.1002/adma.201705322|issn=0935-9648}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schenk|first=Franziska|last2=Wilts|first2=Bodo D|last3=Stavenga|first3=Doekele G|date=2013-11-21|title=The Japanese jewel beetle: a painter's challenge|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-3182/8/4/045002|journal=Bioinspiration & Biomimetics|volume=8|issue=4|pages=045002|doi=10.1088/1748-3182/8/4/045002|issn=1748-3182}}</ref> .The scales of these animals consist of microstructures such as ridges, cross-ribs, ridge-lamellae, and microribs that have been shown to be responsible for coloration.
+''[[Morpho]]'' butterfly wings contain microstructures that create its coloring effect through [[structural coloration]] rather than [[pigment]]ation. The colour of butterfly wings is due to multiple instances of constructive [[Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] from structures: incident light waves are reflected at specific wavelengths to create vibrant colors due to multilayer interference, diffraction, thin film interference, and scattering properties <ref name="Ball">{{cite news|url=http://www.nature.com/scientificamerican/journal/v306/n5/full/scientificamerican0512-74.html|title=Scientific American|author=Ball, Philip|date=May 2012|work=Nature's Color Tricks|accessdate=3 June 2012|volume=306|pages=74–79|doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0512-74}}</ref> .The structural color has been simply explained as the interference due to alternating layers of cuticle and air using a model of [[Thin-film interference|multilayer interference]]. <!-- missing reference -->The photonic microstructure of ''[[Morpho]]'' butterfly wings can be replicated through biomorphic mineralization<!-- missing reference --> or deposition of randomly sized silica microspheres to lead to similar optical properties <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Song|first=Bokwang|last2=Johansen|first2=Villads Egede|last3=Sigmund|first3=Ole|last4=Shin|first4=Jung H.|date=2017-04-07|title=Reproducing the hierarchy of disorder for Morpho-inspired, broad-angle color reflection|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/srep46023|journal=Scientific Reports|language=En|volume=7|issue=1|doi=10.1038/srep46023|issn=2045-2322}}</ref>.
+The photonic microstructures can be replicated using metal oxides or metal alkoxides such as titanium sulfate (TiSO<sub>4</sub>), [[zirconium oxide]] (ZrO<sub>2</sub>), and [[aluminium oxide]] (Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>).  An alternative method of vapor-phase oxidation of SiH4 on the template surface was found to preserve delicate structural features of the microstructure.<ref>Cook G., Timms P.L., Goltner-Spickermann C. Angew. "Chem Int Ed." 2003. 42:557.</ref>
+The manufacturer of high end cars [[Lotus Cars|Lotus]] have developed a paint that is said to mimic the structural blue colour of ''[[Morpho]]'' butterfly<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://discoverlexus.com/highlights/structural-blue-color-reimagined|title=Structural Blue: Color Reimagined / Discover the Global World of Lexus|website=discoverlexus.com|access-date=2018-09-25}}</ref>.
+Phase-separation has been used to fabricate ultra-[[white]] [[scattering]] membranes from [[polymethylmethacrylate]], mimicking the extraordinary properties of the [[beetle]] ''[[Cyphochilus (beetle)|Cyphochilus]]''.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Syurik|first1=Julia|last2=Jacucci|first2=Gianni|last3=Onelli|first3=Olimpia D.<!--self-citing author-->|last4=Holscher|first4=Hendrik|last5=Vignolini|first5=Silvia|date=22 February 2018|title=Bio-inspired Highly Scattering Networks via Polymer Phase Separation|url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/adfm.201706901/full|journal=Advanced Functional Materials|volume=|issue=|pages=|doi=10.1002/adfm.201706901}}</ref>
+==== Display technology ====
+The [[structural coloration]] of butterfly wings has been adapted to provide improved [[interferometric modulator display]]s.<ref>[http://iopscience.iop.org/1468-6996/12/6/064709 IOP Science: structurally colored displays]</ref> A display technology (called "Mirasol") based on the reflective properties of ''[[Morpho]]'' [[butterfly]] wings was commercialized by [[Qualcomm]] in 2007.  The technology uses [[Interferometric modulator display|Interferometric Modulation]] to reflect light so only the desired color is visible in each individual pixel of the display.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.qualcomm.com/blog/2010/01/07/nature-knows-best|title=Nature Knows Best: What Burrs, Geckos and Termites Teach Us About Design|last1=Cathey|first1=Jim|date=7 January 2010|publisher=Qualcomm|accessdate=24 August 2015}}</ref>
+==Other applications==
+[[Protein folding]] has been used to control material formation for [[Molecular self-assembly|self-assembled functional nanostructures]].<ref>[http://www.jnanobiotechnology.com/content/12/1/4 Self-assembled nanostructures]</ref> Polar bear fur has inspired the design of thermal collectors and clothing.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://rsta.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/367/1894/1749|title=Bionics in textiles: flexible and translucent thermal insulations for solar thermal applications |last1=Stegmaier |first1=Thomas |last2=Linke |first2=Michael |last3=Planck |first3=Heinrich |date=29 March 2009 |doi=10.1098/rsta.2009.0019 |journal=Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A |volume=367 |issue=1894 |pages=1749–1758}}</ref> The light refractive properties of the moth's eye has been studied to reduce the reflectivity of solar panels.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Wilson, S.J. Wilson |author2=Hutley, M.C. | title=The Optical Properties of 'Moth Eye' Antireflection Surfaces | journal=Journal of Modern Optics | volume=29 | issue=7 | pages=993–1009| year=1982 | doi=10.1080/713820946}}</ref> [[File:TobaccoMosaicVirus.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Electron micrograph of rod shaped TMV particles.|[[Scanning electron micrograph]] of rod shaped [[tobacco mosaic virus]] particles.]]
+The [[Bombardier beetle]]'s powerful repellent spray inspired a Swedish company to develop a "micro mist" spray technology, which is claimed to have a low carbon impact (compared to aerosol sprays). The beetle mixes chemicals and releases its spray via a steerable nozzle at the end of its abdomen, stinging and confusing the victim.<ref>[http://www.swedishbiomimetics.com/biomimetics_folder.pdf Swedish Biomimetics: The &mu;Mist Platform Technology] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131213022851/http://www.swedishbiomimetics.com/biomimetics_folder.pdf |date=December 13, 2013 }}. Retrieved 3 June 2012.</ref>
+Most [[virus]]es have an outer capsule 20 to 300&nbsp;nm in diameter. Virus capsules are remarkably robust and capable of withstanding temperatures as high as 60&nbsp;°C; they are stable across the [[pH]] range 2-10.<ref name="Tong" /> Viral capsules can be used to create nano device components such as nanowires, nanotubes, and quantum dots. Tubular virus particles such as the [[tobacco mosaic virus]] (TMV) can be used as templates to create nanofibers and nanotubes, since both the inner and outer layers of the virus are charged surfaces which can induce nucleation of crystal growth.
-[[Biomimetic material]]s are gaining increasing attention in the field of [[optics]] and [[photonics]]. For example, the chiral [[self-assembly]] of cellulose inspired by the [[Pollia condensata]] berry has been exploited to make optically active films.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Dumanli|first1=A. G.|last2=van der Kooij |first2=H. M. |last3=Reisner|first3=E.|last4=Baumberg|first4=J.J. |last5=Steiner|first5=U. |last6=Vignolini |first6=Silvia |title=Digital color in cellulose nanocrystal films|journal=ACS applied materials & interfaces |date=2014 |volume=7|issue=15|doi=10.1021/am501995e}}</ref> Similarly, phase-separation has been used to fabricate ultra-[[white]] [[scattering]] membranes from [[polymethylmethacrylate]], mimicking the extraordinary properties of the [[beetle]] ''[[Cyphochilus (beetle)|Cyphochilus]]''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Syurik |first1=Julia |last2=Jacucci |first2=Gianni |last3=Onelli |first3= Olimpia D.<!--self-citing author--> |last4=Holscher |first4=Hendrik |last5=Vignolini |first5=Silvia |date=22 February 2018 |title=Bio-inspired Highly Scattering Networks via Polymer Phase Separation
- |url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/adfm.201706901/full |journal=Advanced Functional Materials |volume= |issue= |pages= |doi=10.1002/adfm.201706901}}</ref>
+This was demonstrated through the production of [[platinum]] and [[gold]] nanotubes using TMV as a template.<ref name="Dujardin">Dujardin E., Peet C. "Nano Letters" 2003. 3:413.</ref>  Mineralized virus particles have been shown to withstand various pH values by mineralizing the viruses with different materials such as silicon, [[Lead(II) sulfide|PbS]], and [[Cadmium sulfide|CdS]] and could therefore serve as a useful carriers of material.<ref name="Shenton">Shenton W. Douglas, Young M. "Advanced Materials" 1999. 11:253.</ref>  A spherical plant virus called [[cowpea chlorotic mottle virus]] (CCMV) has interesting expanding properties when exposed to environments of pH higher than 6.5.  Above this pH, 60 independent pores with diameters about 2&nbsp;nm begin to exchange substance with the environment.  The structural transition of the viral capsid can be utilized in [[Biomineralization|Biomorphic mineralization]] for selective uptake and deposition of minerals by controlling the solution pH.  Possible applications include using the viral cage to produce uniformly shaped and sized quantum dot [[semiconductor]] nanoparticles through a series of pH washes.  This is an alternative to the [[Ferritin|apoferritin]] cage technique currently used to synthesize uniform CdSe nanoparticles.<ref>Ischiro Yamashita, Junko Hayashi, Mashahiko Hara. "Bio-template Synthesis of Uniform CdSe Nanoparticles Using Cage-shaped Protein, Apoferritin." Chemistry Letters (2004). Volume: 33, Issue: 9. 1158–1159.</ref> Such materials could also be used for targeted drug delivery since particles release contents upon exposure to specific pH levels.
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 == See also ==

Revision as of 12:39, 26 September 2018

History

Commercial applications

Fabrication

Display technology

Bio-inspired Applications

Locomotion

Construction and architecture

Structural materials

Self healing materials

Surfaces and Adhesion

Optics

Inspiration from fruits and plants

Inspiration from animals

Display technology

Other applications

See also

References

Further reading

External links