Canadian federal election results in the Fraser Valley and the Southern Lower Mainland

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Electoral history
YearResults
2019
2015
2011
2008
2006
2004
2000
1997
1993
1988
1984
1980
1979
1974
1972
1968
1965
1963
1962
1958
1957
1953
1949
1945
1940
1935
1930

This is page shows results of Canadian federal elections in the Fraser Valley region of British Columbia. As defined for this article, the Fraser Valley includes the southern suburbs of Vancouver. Areas outside the Fraser Valley, namely the Fraser Canyon and regions to its west, are also included within one of the ridings. The largest of these ridings is the Chilliwack-Hope riding. This riding also includes most of the Fraser Valley until it joins the Okanagan-Similkameen and extends westward until outside Abbotsford.[1]

Regional profile[edit]

The Fraser Valley is traditionally one of the most socially conservative areas in British Columbia, although it is slowly becoming more liberal as urban sprawl extends eastward. This region has been dominated by the Conservatives and the former Reform and Canadian Alliance parties for most of the time from 1993 to 2011.

The northern parts of Surrey historically leaned toward the NDP until the 1990s. In 2011, the Liberals lost their remaining seat in the region, while the NDP picked up two seats in Surrey. The NDP won Surrey North in 2006 which was the first time the NDP won a seat in the region since 1988. They lost the riding to the Conservatives in 2008 before winning it back in 2011, only to lose it to the Liberals in 2015.

The base of Liberal support in the region has traditionally been in Richmond. They held the seat of Richmond from 1993 to 2000 and from 2004 to 2008. Since then, the Conservatives have made inroads with the Chinese community in Richmond, and have held Richmond ever since. By then, the two seats representing Richmond had been captured by the Conservatives. The Liberals picked up a second seat in the region in 2006, Newton—North Delta which they lost to the NDP in 2011. However, in 2015, the Liberals regained the seat's successor, Surrey-Newton. They also managed to regain parts of the city of Richmond, specifically Steveston-Richmond East. The Conservatives gained both seats back in 2019, only to lose both to the Liberals in 2021.

Conservative support has traditionally been the strongest in the Fraser Valley Regional District, Langley and in southern Surrey. Since 2004, the Conservatives' best riding has been Abbotsford. In 2011, they won 65% of the vote there. They also won over 60% of the vote in neighboring Langley. The FVRD is sometimes referred to BC's "bible belt" due to its high population of evangelical Christians, giving it a character similar to ridings in rural portions of the Prairies.

2019[edit]

Electoral district Candidates Incumbent
Conservative NDP Liberal Green PPC Other
Abbotsford Ed Fast
25,162
51.4%
Madeleine Sauve
8,257
16.9%
Seamus Heffernan
10,560
21.6%
Stephen Fowler
3,702
7.6%
Locke Duncan
985
2.0%
Aeriol Alderking
CHP
270
0.6%
Ed Fast
Chilliwack—Hope Mark Strahl
26,672
49.6%
Heather McQuillan
8957
16.7%
Kelly Velonis
10,848
20.2%
Arthur Green
5,243
9.8%
Rob Bogunovic
1,760
3.3%
Daniel Lamache
CHP
202
0.4%
Dorothy-Jean O'Donnell
M-L
73
0.1%
Mark Strahl
Cloverdale—Langley City Tamara Jansen
20,936
37.7%
Rae Banwarie
10,508
18.9%
John Aldag
19,542
35.2%
Caelum Nutbrown
3,572
6.5%
Ian Kennedy
930
1.7%
John Aldag
Delta Tanya Corbert
17,809
33.0%
Randy Anderson-Fennell
8,792
16.3%
Carla Qualtrough
22,257
41.2%
Craig DeCraene
3,387
6.3%
Angela Ireland
458
1.8%
Amarit Bains
(Ind.)
0.7%
398
Tony Bennett
(Ind.)
385
0.7%
Carla Qualtrough
Fleetwood—Port Kells Shinder Purewal
16,646
33.8%
Annie Ohana
10,569
21.5%
Ken Hardie
18,545
37.7%
Tanya Baertl
2,378
4.8%
Mike Poulin
1,104
2.2%
Ken Hardie
Langley—Aldergrove Tako Van Popta
29,823
46.73%
Stacy Wakelin
10,690
16.75%
Leon Jensen
16,254
25.47%
Kaija Farstad
4,881
7.65%
Natalie Dipietra-Cudmore
1,305
2.05
Alex Joehl
(Libert.)
499
0.78%
Mark Warawa
Mission—Matsqui—Fraser Canyon Brad Vis
19,535
42.4%
Michael Nenn
8,089
17.6%
Jati Sidhu
12,299
26.7%
John Kidder
5,019
10.9%
Julius Nick Csaszar
1,055
2.3%
Elaine Wismer
M-L
69
0.1%
Jati Sidhu
Pitt Meadows—Maple Ridge Marc Dalton
19,650
36.2%
John Mogk
12,958
23.9%
Dan Ruimy
16,125
29.7%
Ariane Jaschke
4,332
8.0%
Bryton Cherrier
698
1.3%
Steve Ranta
(Ind.)
468
0.9%
Dan Ruimy
Richmond Centre Alice Wong
19,037
49.0%
Dustin Innes
5,617
14.5%
Steven Kou
11,052
28.5%
Françoise Raunet
2,376
6.1%
Ivan Pak
538
1.4%
Zhe Zhang
(Ind.)
197
0.5%
Alice Wong
South Surrey—White Rock Kerry-Lynne Findlay
24,310
41.9%
Stephen Crozier
6,716
11.6%
Gordie Hogg
21,692
37.4
Beverly Pixie Hobby
4,458
7.7%
Joel Poulin
825
1.5%
Gordie Hogg
Steveston—Richmond East Kenny Chiu
17,478
41.7%
Jaeden Dela Torre
6,321
15.1%
Joe Peschisolido
14,731
35.1%
Nicole Iaci
2,972
7.1%
Ping Chan
(Ind.)
449
1.1%
Joe Peschisolido
Surrey Centre Tina Bains
10,505
25.4%
Sarjit Singh Saran
11,353
27.5%
Randeep Sarai
15,435
37.4%
John Werring
2,558
6.2%
Jaswinder Singh Dilawari
709
1.7%
George Gidora
(Comm.)
120
0.3%
Kevin Pielak
CHP
378
0.9
Jeffrey Breti
(Ind.)
243
0.6%
Randeep Sarai
Surrey—Newton Harpreet Singh
8,824
21.0%
Harjit Singh Gill
12,306
29.2%
Sukh Dhaliwal
18,960
45.0%
Rabaab Khehra
1,355
3.2%
Holly Verchère
653
1.6%
Sukh Dhaliwal


2015[edit]

Electoral district Candidates Incumbent
Conservative NDP Liberal Green Other
Abbotsford Ed Fast
23,229
48.27%
Jen Martel
6,593
13.70%
Peter Njenga
15,777
32.78%
Stephen Fowler
2,416
5.02%
David MacKay (M-L)
109
0.23%
Ed Fast
Chilliwack—Hope Mark Strahl
21,445
42.33%
Seonaigh MacPherson
9,218
18.20%
Louis De Jaeger
17,114
33.78%
Thomas Cheney
2,386
4.71%
Alexander Johnson (Libert.)
416 0.82%
Mark Strahl
Chilliwack—Fraser Canyon
Dorothy-Jean O'Donnell (M-L)
82 0.16%
Cloverdale—Langley City Dean Drysdale
18,800
34.77%
Rebecca Smith
8,463
15.65%
John Aldag
24,617
45.52%
Scott Anderson
2,195
4.06%
New District
Delta Kerry-Lynne Findlay
18,255
32.78%
Jeremy Leveque
8,311
14.92%
Carla Qualtrough
27,355
49.12%
Anthony Edward Devellano
1,768
3.17%
New District
Fleetwood—Port Kells Nina Grewal
14,275
29.27%
Garry Begg
10,463
21.46%
Ken Hardie
22,871
46.90%
Richard Hosein
1,154
2.37%
Nina Grewal
Langley—Aldergrove Mark Warawa
27,333
45.63%
Margot Sangster
7,490
12.51%
Leon Jensen
21,894
36.55%
Simmi Saminder Kaur Dhillon
2,644
4.41%
Lauren Southern (Libert.)
535
0.89%
Mark Warawa
Langley
Mission—Matsqui—Fraser Canyon Brad Vis
15,587
34.91%
Dennis Adamson
9,174
20.55%
Jati Sidhu
16,625
37.23%
Arthur Alexander Green
2,293
5.14%
Wyatt Scott (Ind.)
914 2.05%
New District
Elaine Wismer (M-L)
58 0.13%
Pitt Meadows—Maple Ridge Mike Murray
16,373
31.40%
Bob D'Eith
15,450
29.63%
Dan Ruimy
17,673
33.89%
Peter Tam
2,202
4.22%
Steve Ranta (Ind.)
452
0.87%
Randy Kamp
Pitt Meadows—Maple Ridge—Mission
Richmond Centre Alice Wong
17,622
44.21%
Jack Trovato
4,602
11.54%
Lawrence Woo
16,486
41.36%
Vincent Chiu
1,152
2.89%
Alice Wong
Richmond
South Surrey—White Rock Dianne Lynn Watts
24,934
44.03%
Pixie Hobby
5,895
10.41%
Judy Higginbotham
23,495
41.49%
Larry Colero
1,938
3.42%
Bonnie Hu (Libert.)
261 0.46%
Russ Hiebert
South Surrey—White Rock—Cloverdale
Brian Marlatt (PC)
108 0.19%
Steveston—Richmond East Kenny Chiu
16,630
38.47%
Scott Stewart
5,248
12.14%
Joe Peschisolido
19,486
45.08%
Laura-Leah Shaw
1,587
3.67%
Matthew Swanston (Libert.)
274
0.63%
Kerry-Lynne Findlay
Delta—Richmond East
Surrey Centre Sucha Thind
8,556
19.81%
Jasbir Sandhu
12,992
30.08%
Randeep Sarai
19,471
45.07%
Jeremiah Deneault
1,493
3.46%
Iqbal Kahlon (Comm.)
133 0.31%
Jasbir Sandhu
Surrey North
Kevin Pielak (CHP)
553 1.28%
Surrey—Newton Harpreet Singh
6,978
15.71%
Jinny Sims
11,602
26.12%
Sukh Dhaliwal
24,869
55.98%
Pamela Sangha
975
2.19%
Jinny Sims
Newton—North Delta

2011[edit]

Electoral district Candidates Incumbent
Conservative Liberal NDP Green Other
Abbotsford Ed Fast
32,493
65.02%
Madeleine Hardin
4,968
9.94%
David Alan Murray
10,089
20.19%
Daniel Bryce
2,138
4.28%
David MacKay (M-L)
286
0.57%
Ed Fast
Chilliwack—Fraser Canyon Mark Strahl
28,160
57.20%
Diane Janzen
5,320
10.81%
Gwen O'Mahony
12,691
25.78%
Jamie Hoskins
2,706
5.50%
Clive Edwards (WBP)
180 0.37%
Chuck Strahl
Dorothy-Jean O'Donnell (M-L)
173 0.35%
Delta—Richmond East Kerry-Lynne Findlay
26,059
54.24%
Alan Beesley
8,112
16.88%
Nic Slater
11,181
23.27%
Duane Laird
2,324
4.84%
Jeff Monds (Libert.)
147 0.31%
John Cummins
John Shavluk (Ind.)
220 0.46%
Fleetwood—Port Kells Nina Grewal
23,950
47.55%
Pam Dhanoa
8,041
15.96%
Nao Fernando
16,533
32.82%
Alan Saldanha
1,476
2.93%
Alex Joehl (Libert.)
370
0.73%
Nina Grewal
Langley Mark Warawa
35,569
64.52%
Rebecca Darnell
4,990
9.05%
Piotr Majkowski
11,277
20.45%
Carey Ann Poitras
2,943
5.34%
Craig Nobbs (Pirate)
353
0.64%
Mark Warawa
Newton—North Delta Mani Fallon
14,437
31.30%
Sukh Dhaliwal
14,510
31.46%
Jinny Sims
15,413
33.42%
Liz Walker
1,520
3.30%
Ravi S. Gill (Ind.)
123 0.27%
Sukh Dhaliwal
Samuel Frank Hammond (Comm.)
116 0.25%
Pitt Meadows—
Maple Ridge—Mission
Randy Kamp
28,803
54.34%
Mandeep Bhuller
2,739
5.17%
Craig Speirs
18,835
35.53%
Peter Tam
2,629
4.96%
Randy Kamp
Richmond Alice Wong
25,109
58.36%
Joe Peschisolido
8,027
18.66%
Dale Jackaman
7,860
18.27%
Michael Wolfe
2,032
4.72%
Alice Wong
South Surrey—
White Rock—Cloverdale
Russ Hiebert
31,990
54.55%
Hardy Staub
9,775
16.67%
Susan Keeping
11,881
20.26%
Larry Colero
3,245
5.53%
Kevin Peter Donohoe (Ind.)
152 0.26%
Russ Hiebert
David Hawkins (Ind.)
189 0.32%
Aart Looye (Ind.)
753 1.28%
Brian Marlatt (PC)
228 0.39%
Mike Schouten (CHP)
429 0.73%
Surrey North Dona Cadman
13,181
35.64%
Shinder Purewal
6,797
18.38%
Jasbir Sandhu
14,678
39.69%
Bernadette Keenan
1,289
3.49%
Norris Barens (Libert.)
284 0.77%
Dona Cadman
Kevin Pielak (CHP)
303 0.82%
Jamie Scott (Ind.)
451 1.22%

Maps[edit]

  1. Abbotsford
  2. Chilliwack—Hope
  3. Cloverdale—Langley City
  4. Delta
  5. Fleetwood—Port Kells
  6. Langley—Aldergrove
  7. Mission—Matsqui —Fraser Canyon
  8. Pitt Medows—Maple Ridge
  9. Richmond Centre
  10. South Surrey—White Rock
  11. Steveston—Richmond East
  12. Surrey Centre
  13. Surrey—Newton

2008[edit]

Electoral district Candidates Incumbent
Conservative Liberal NDP Green Other
Abbotsford Ed Fast
30,853
63.32%
Lionel Dominique Traverse
7,933
16.28%
Bonnie Rai
6,444
13.22%
Karen Durant
3,141
6.45%
Tim Felger (Mar.)
358
0.73%
Ed Fast
Chilliwack—
Fraser Canyon
Chuck Strahl
29,198
62.32%
Myra Sweeney
3,990
8.52%
Helen Kormendy
8,791
18.76%
Barbara Lebeau
4,107
8.77%
Harold J. Ludwig (CHP)
653 1.39%
Chuck Strahl
Dorothy-Jean O'Donnell (M-L)
113 0.24%
Delta—
Richmond East
John Cummins
26,252
55.75%
Dana L. Miller
10,371
22.02%
Szilvia Barna
6,803
14.45%
Matthew Laine
3,663
7.78%
John Cummins
Fleetwood—
Port Kells
Nina Grewal
21,389
44.70%
Brenda Locke
12,502
26.13%
Nao Fernando
10,916
22.81%
Brian Newbold
3,045
6.36%
Nina Grewal
Langley Mark Warawa
32,594
61.46%
Jake Gray
5,888
11.10%
Andrew Claxton
8,898
16.78%
Patrick Meyer
5,059
9.54%
Ron Gray (CHP)
594
1.12%
Mark Warawa
Newton—
North Delta
Sandeep Pandher
13,988
30.91%
Sukh Dhaliwal
16,481
36.42%
Teresa Townsley
11,824
26.13%
Liz Walker
2,533
5.60%
Harjit Daudharia (Comm.)
121 0.27%
Sukh Dhaliwal
James William Miller-Cousineau (Ind.)
179 0.40%
John Shavluk (Ind.)
126 0.28%
Pitt Meadows—
Maple Ridge—
Mission
Randy Kamp
26,512
51.81%
Dan Olson
3,394
6.63%
Mike Bocking
16,894
33.01%
Mike Gildersleeve
3,833
7.49%
Jeff Monds (Libert.)
300 0.59%
Randy Kamp
Evans Nicholson (Ind.)
137 0.27%
Chum Richardson (Ind.)
101 0.20%
Richmond Alice Wong
21,359
49.81%
Raymond Chan
13,221
30.83%
Dale Jackaman
5,059
11.80%
Michael Anthony Wolfe
2,753
6.42%
Wei Ping Chen (Ind.)
395 0.92%
Raymond Chan
Dobie Yiu-Chung To (Ind.)
91 0.21%
South Surrey—
White Rock—
Cloverdale
Russ Hiebert
31,216
56.65%
Judy Higginbotham
11,515
20.90%
Peter Prontzos
7,146
12.97%
David Blair
4,951
8.99%
Brian Marlatt
(PC) 273
0.50%
Russ Hiebert
Surrey North Dona Cadman
13,714
39.37%
Marc Muhammad
5,227
15.01%
Rachid Arab
12,608
36.20%
Dan Kashamanga
1,925
5.53%
Psam Frank (CAP)
105 0.30%
Penny Priddy
Alex Joehl (Libert.)
347 1.00%
Bernadette Keenan (Ind.)
271 0.78%
Nikolas Langlands (PC)
152 0.44%
Kevin Pielak (CHP)
484 1.39%
Key map
  1. Abbotsford
  2. Chilliwack-Fraser Canyon
  3. Delta-Richmond East
  4. Pitt Meadows-Maple Ridge-Mission
  5. Fleetwood-Port Kells
  6. Langley
  7. Newton-North Delta
  8. Richmond
  9. South Surrey-White Rock-Cloverdale
  10. Surrey North

2006[edit]

Electoral district Candidates Incumbent
Liberal Conservative NDP Green Other
Abbotsford David Oliver
5,976
12.68%
Ed Fast
29,825
63.27%
Jeffrey Hansen-Carlson
8,004
16.98%
Stephanie Ashley-Pryce
2,740
5.81%
Tim Felger (Mar.)
334 0.71%
Randy White
Richard Gebert (CAP)
173 0.37%
David S. MacKay (M-L)
86 0.18%
Chilliwack—Fraser Canyon Myra Sweeney
8,106
16.91%
Chuck Strahl
26,842
55.99%
Malcolm James
10,015
20.89%
Ed Baye
1,929
4.02%
Ron Gray (CHP)
935 1.95%
Chuck Strahl
Dorothy-Jean O'Donnell (M-L)
114 0.24%
Delta—Richmond East Patricia Whittaker
15,527
31.88%
John Cummins
23,595
48.44%
William Jonsson
7,176
14.73%
Jean-Philippe Laflamme
2,414
4.96%
John Cummins
Fleetwood—Port Kells Brenda Locke
13,749
31.57%
Nina Grewal
14,577
33.47%
Barry Bell
10,961
25.17%
Duncan McDonald
1,059
2.43%
Jack Cook (Ind.)
3,202
7.35%
Nina Grewal
Langley Bill Brooks
12,553
23.09%
Mark Warawa
28,577
52.57%
Angel Claypool
9,993
18.38%
Patrick Meyer
3,023
5.56%
Vicki Lee Sloan (CAP)
211
0.39%
Mark Warawa
Newton—North Delta Sukh Dhaliwal
15,006
34.25%
Phil Eidsvik
13,416
30.62%
Nancy Clegg
14,006
31.96%
Sunny Athwal
853
1.95%
Harjit Daudharia (Comm.)
112 0.26%
Gurmant Grewal
Rob Girn (Ind.)
319 0.73%
Mike Saifie (Ind.)
106 0.24%
Pitt Meadows—Maple Ridge—
Mission
Keith Henry
10,556
20.25%
Randy Kamp
20,946
40.19%
Mike Bocking
18,225
34.97%
Rob Hornsey
1,694
3.25%
Dan Banov (Mar.)
327 0.63%
Randy Kamp
Erin Knipstrom (Ind.)
277 0.53%
Frank Martin (M-L)
95 0.18%
Richmond Raymond Chan
18,712
42.83%
Darrel Robert Reid
16,904
38.69%
Neil Smith
6,106
13.98%
Richard Mathias
1,967
4.50%
Raymond Chan
South Surrey—White Rock—
Cloverdale
Jim McMurtry
17,336
30.67%
Russ Hiebert
26,383
46.68%
Libby Thornton
9,525
16.85%
Pierre Rovtar
2,980
5.27%
Brian Marlatt (PC)
293
0.52%
Russ Hiebert
Surrey North Surjit Kooner
6,991
19.59%
David Matta
9,864
27.64%
Penny Priddy
16,307
45.69%
Roy Whyte
961
2.69%
John Baloun (Ind.)
420 1.18%
Vacant[a]
Nikolas Langlands (PC)
221 0.62%
Kevin Pielak
(CHP) 411 1.15%
Nina Rivet (Ind.)
512 1.43%
Key map
  1. Abbotsford
  2. Chilliwack-Fraser Canyon
  3. Delta-Richmond East
  4. Pitt Meadows-Maple Ridge-Mission
  5. Fleetwood-Port Kells
  6. Langley
  7. Newton-North Delta
  8. Richmond
  9. South Surrey-White Rock-Cloverdale
  10. Surrey North

2004[edit]

Electoral district Candidates Incumbent
Liberal Conservative NDP Green Other
Abbotsford Moe Gill
9,617
19.95%
Randy White
29,587
61.37%
Scott Fast
6,575
13.64%
Karl Hann
1,389
2.88%
Tim Felger (Mar.)
404 0.84%
Randy White
Harold J. Ludwig (CHP)
585 1.21%
David MacKay (M-L)
51 0.11%
Chilliwack—Fraser Canyon Bob Besner
8,249
18.38%
Chuck Strahl
24,096
53.68%
Rollie L. Keith
9,244
20.59%
Aisha Coghlan
1,449
3.23%
Ron Gray (CHP)
1,156 2.58%
Chuck Strahl
Dorothy-Jean O'Donnell (M-L)
95 0.21%
Norm Siefken (Mar.)
603 1.34%
Delta—Richmond East Shelley Leonhardt
15,515
33.20%
John Cummins
21,308
45.60%
Itrath Syed
6,838
14.63%
Dana L. Miller
3,066
6.56%
John Cummins
Dewdney—Alouette Blanche Juneau
10,500
21.87%
Randy Kamp
18,490
38.51%
Mike Bocking
15,693
32.68%
Tammy Lea Meyer
2,535
5.28%
Scott Etches (NA)
798
1.66%
Grant McNally
Fleetwood—Port Kells Gulzar Cheema
11,568
29.47%
Nina Grewal
14,052
35.80%
Barry Bell
10,976
27.97%
David Walters
2,484
6.33%
Joseph Theriault (M-L)
167
0.43%
new district
Langley Kim Richter
12,649
24.74%
Mark Warawa
24,390
47.70%
Dean Morrison
8,568
16.75%
Patrick Meyer
3,108
6.08%
Mel Kositsky (Ind.)
2,422
4.74%
new district
Newton—North Delta Sukh Dhaliwal
13,009
31.55%
Gurmant Grewal
13,529
32.82%
Nancy Clegg
12,037
29.20%
John Hague
2,555
6.20%
Nazir Rizvi (Comm.)
98
0.24%
Gurmant Grewal
Richmond Raymond Chan
18,204
44.48%
Alice Wong
14,457
35.33%
Dale Jackaman
6,142
15.01%
Stephen H.F. Kronstein
1,743
4.26%
Allan Warnke (CAP)
376
0.92%
Joe Peschisolido§
South Surrey—White Rock—Cloverdale Judy Higginbotham
19,611
36.77%
Russ Hiebert
22,760
42.67%
H. Pummy Kaur
7,663
14.37%
Romeo De La Pena
3,032
5.68%
Pat Taylor (CAP)
272
0.51%
Val Meredith§
Surrey North Dan Sheel
5,413
15.71%
Jasbir Singh Cheema
4,340
12.60%
Jim Karpoff
8,312
24.13%
Sunny Athwal
658
1.91%
Chuck Cadman (NA)
15,089
43.80%
Chuck Cadman[b]
Gerhard Herwig (CHP)
460 1.34%
Joyce Holmes (Comm.)
93 0.27%
Roy Whyte (CAP)
85 0.25%
Key map
  1. Abbotsford
  2. Chilliwack-Fraser Canyon
  3. Delta-Richmond East
  4. Dewdney-Alouette
  5. Fleetwood-Port Kells
  6. Langley
  7. Newton-North Delta
  8. Richmond
  9. South Surrey-White Rock-Cloverdale
  10. Surrey North
Conservative Party of Canada
Green Party of Canada
Liberal Party of Canada
New Democratic Party

2000[edit]

Notes and References[edit]

Notes[edit]

  1. ^ Formerly held by Independent MP Chuck Cadman, died July 9, 2005
  2. ^ Cadman lost the Conservative nomination and left caucus to sit as an Independent in April 2004.

References[edit]

  1. ^ "2019 Canada election results: Chilliwack-Hope | Globalnews.ca". Global News. Retrieved 2022-12-18.