Lycoperdon perlatum

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Lycoperdon perlatum
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Fungi
Division:
Basidiomycota
Class:
Agaricomycetes
Order:
Agaricales
Family:
Agaricaceae
Genus:
Lycoperdon
Species:
L. perlatum
Binomial name
Lycoperdon perlatum
Pers. (1796)
Synonyms[1]

Lycoperdon gemmatum Batsch (1783)
Lycoperdon gemmatum var. perlatum (Pers.) Fr. (1829)

Lycoperdon perlatum
View the Mycomorphbox template that generates the following list
Glebal hymenium
Spore print is olive-brown
Ecology is saprotrophic
Edibility is edible or inedible

Lycoperdon perlatum, commonly known as the common puffball, warted puffball, gem-studded puffball or devil's snuff-box, is a species of puffball mushroom in the Agaricaceae family. A common species with a cosmopolitan distribution, it is a moderate-sized puffball with a round fruit body tapering to a wide stalk, and dimensions of 1.5 to 6 cm (0.6 to 2.4 in) wide by 3 to 7 cm (1.2 to 2.8 in) tall. It is off-white with a top covered in short spiny bumps or 'jewels', which are easily rubbed off to leave a netlike pattern on the surface. When mature it becomes brown and a hole in the top opens to release spores in a burst when the body is compressed by raindrops, a touch, falling nuts, etc. The puffball grows in fields, gardens, and along roadsides, as well as in grassy clearings in woods. The puffball is edible when young and the internal flesh is completely white. Laboratory tests indicate that extracts of the puffball have antimicrobial and antifungal activities. Several chemical compounds have been isolated and identified from the fruit bodies of L. perlatum, including sterol derivatives, volatile compounds that give the puffball its flavor and odor, and the unusual amino acid lycoperdic acid.

Taxonomy

The species was first described in the scientific literature in 1796 by mycologist Christian Hendrik Persoon.[2] The variant Lycoperdon gemmatum var. perlatum, published by Elias Magnus Fries in 1829,[3] is a synonym.[1] Some authorities consider Lycoperdon gemmatum, described by August Batsch in 1783,[4] to be a synonym.[5][6]

The specific epithet perlatum is Latin for "widespread".[7] It is commonly known as the common puffball, the gem-studded puffball[8] (or gemmed puffball[9]), the warted puffball,[7] or the devil's snuff-box;[10] Samuel Frederick Gray called it the pearly puff-ball in his 1821 Natural Arrangement of British Plants.[11] Because some indigenous peoples believed that the spores caused blindness, the puffball has some local names such as "blindman's bellows" and "no-eyes".[12]

Description

Closeup of the surface, showing the characteristic spines

The fruit body ranges in shape from pear-like with a flattened top, to nearly spherical, and reaches dimensions of 1.5 to 6 cm (0.6 to 2.4 in) wide by 3 to 7 cm (1.2 to 2.8 in) tall. It has a stem-like base. The outer surface of the fruit body (the exoperidium) is covered in short cone-shaped spines that are interspersed with granular warts. The spines, which are whitish, gray, or brown, can be easily rubbed off, and leave reticulate pock marks or scars after they are removed.[9] The base of the puffball is thick, and has internal chambers. It is initially white, but turns yellow, olive, or brownish in age.[9] The reticulate pattern resulting from the rubbed-off spines is less evident on the base.[13] In maturity, the exoperidium at the top of the puffball sloughs away, revealing a pre-formed hole (ostiole) in the endoperidium, through which the spores can escape.[14] In young puffballs, the internal contents, the gleba, is white and firm, but turns brown and powdery as the spores mature.[9] The gleba contains minute chambers that are lined with hymenium (the fertile, spore-bearing tissue); the chambers collapse when the spores mature.[14]

The spores are spherical, thick-walled, covered with minute spines, and measure 3.5–4.5 μm in diameter. The capillitia (threadlike filaments in the gleba in which spores are embedded) are yellow-brown to brownish in color, lack septae,[6] and measure 3–7.5 μm in diameter.[13] The basidia (spore-bearing cells) are club-shaped, four-spored, and measure 7–9 by 4–5 μm. The basidia bear four slender sterigmata of unequal length ranging from 5–10 μm long. The surface spines are made of chains of pseudoparenchymatous hyphae (resembling the parenchyma of higher plants), in which the individual hyphal cells are spherical to elliptical in shape, thick-walled (up to 1 μm), and measure 13–40 by 9–35 μm. These hyphae do not have clamp connections.[15]

Edibility

Lycoperdon perlatum, dried[16]
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy1,845.5 kJ (441.1 kcal)
42 g
10.6 g
44.9 g
MineralsQuantity
%DV†
Copper
56%
0.5 mg
Iron
31%
5.5 mg
Manganese
26%
0.6 mg
Zinc
5%
0.5 mg
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[17] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[18]

Lycoperdon perlatum is considered to be a good edible mushroom when young, when the gleba is still homogeneous and white. They have been referred to as "poor man's sweetbread" due to their texture and flavor. The fruit bodies can be eaten by slicing and frying in batter or egg and breadcrumbs,[10] or used in soups.[19] The puffballs become inedible as they mature: the gleba becomes yellow-tinged then finally develops into a mass of powdery olive-green spores. Fruit bodies of L. perlatum are one of several edible species sold in markets in Puebla, Mexico.[20]

The immature 'buttons' or 'eggs' of deadly Amanita species can be confused with puffballs. For this reason puffballs collected for the table should always be sliced vertically and inspected for the internal developing structures of a mushroom. Amanitas will generally not have 'jewels' or a bumpy external surface.[21]

The spores are ornamented with many sharp microscopic spines and can cause severe irritation of the lung (lycoperdonosis) when deliberately inhaled.[22][23] This condition has been reported to afflict dogs that play or run where puffballs are present.[24][25]

Similar species

Lycoperdon excipuliforme

There are several other puffball species with which L. perlatum might be confused. L. nettyanum, found in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States, is covered in granular patches, but these granules adhere more strongly to the surface than those of L. perlatum.[26] L. pyriforme lacks prominent spines on the surface, and grows on rotting wood—although if growing on buried wood, it may appear to be terrestrial. The widely distributed and common L. umbrinum has spines that do not leave scars when rubbed off, a gleba that varies in color from dark brown to purple-brown at maturity, and a purple-tinged base. The small and rare species L. muscorum grows in deep moss. L. peckii can be distinguished from L. pyriforme by the lavender-tinged spines it has when young. L. rimulatum has purplish spores, and an almost completely smooth exoperidium.[9] L. excipuliforme is larger and grayer, and, in mature individuals, the upper portion of its fruit body breaks down completely to release its spores.[12]

Habitat and distribution

Lycoperdon perlatum grows solitarily, scattered, or in groups or clusters on the ground. It can also grow in fairy rings.[10] Typical habitats include woods, grassy areas, and along roads.[9] It has been reported from Pinus patula plantations in Tamil Nadu, India.[15] The puffball sometimes confuses golfers because of its resemblance to a golfball when viewed from a distance.[10] It is widely distributed, and has been reported from Africa (Tanzania),[27] Asia (China,[28] Himalayas,[29] Japan),[30] Australia,[10] Europe,[31] and South America (Brazil).[32] It has been collected from subarctic areas of Greenland, and subalpine regions in Iceland.[33] In North America, where it is considered the most common puffball species, it ranges from Alaska[5] to Mexico.[34]

The puffball bioaccumulates heavy metals present in the soil,[35][36] and can be used as a bioindicator of soil pollution by heavy metals and selenium.[37] In one 1977 study, samples collected from grassy areas near the side of an interstate highway in Connecticut were shown to have high concentrations of cadmium and lead.[38]

Chemistry

Lycoperdic acid

Several steroid derivatives have been isolated and identified from fruit bodies of L. perlatum, including (S)-23-hydroxylanostrol, ergosterol α-endoperoxide, ergosterol 9,11-dehydroendoperoxide and (23E)-lanosta-8,23-dien-3β,25-diol. The compounds 3-octanone, 1-octen-3-ol, and (Z)-3-octen-1-ol are the predominant components of the volatile chemicals that give the puffball its odor and flavor.[39] Extracts of the puffball contain relatively high levels of antimicrobial activity against the human pathogenic bacteria Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, with an efficiency comparable to that of the antibiotic ampicillin.[40] These results corroborate an earlier study that additionally reported antibacterial activity against Salmonella typhimurium, Streptococcus pyogenes, and Mycobacterium smegmatis.[41] Extracts of the puffball have also been reported to have antifungal activity against Candida albicans, Candida tropicalis, Aspergillus fumigatus, Alternaria solani, Botrytis cinerea, and Verticillium dahliae.[42] A 2009 study found L. perlatum puffballs to contain the phenolic compound cinnamic acid at a concentration of about 14 milligrams per kilogram of mushroom.[43] The fruit bodies contain the pigment melanin.[44]

The amino acid lycoperdic acid 3-(5(S)-carboxy-2-oxotetrahydrofuran-5(S)-yl)-2(S)-alanine was isolated from the mushroom, and reported in a 1979 publication.[45] Based on the structural similarity of the new amino acid with (S)-glutamic acid, (S)-(+)-lycoperdic acid is expected to have antagonistic or agonistic activity for the glutamate receptor in the mammalian central nervous system. Methods to synthesize the compounds were reported in 1992,[46] 1995,[47] and 2002.[48]

The predominant fatty acids in the puffball are linoleic acid (37% of the total fatty acids), oleic acid (24%), palmitic acid (14.5%), and stearic acid (6.4%).[49]

References

  1. ^ a b "Lycoperdon perlatum Pers. 1796". MycoBank. International Mycological Association. Retrieved 2011-09-12.
  2. ^ Persoon CH. (1796). Observationes Mycologicae (PDF) (in Latin). Vol. 1. Leipzig, Germany: Petrum Phillippum Wolf. p. 4.
  3. ^ Fries EM. (1829). Systema Mycologicum (in Latin). Vol. 3. Greifswald, Germany: Ernesti Mauritii. p. 37.
  4. ^ Batsch AJGK. (1783). Elenchus fungorum (PDF) (in Latin). Halle an der Saale, Germany: apud J. J. Gebauer. p. 147.
  5. ^ a b Orr DB, Orr RT. (1979). Mushrooms of Western North America. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. p. 115. ISBN 0-520-03656-5.
  6. ^ a b Miller HR, Miller OK. (2006). North American Mushrooms: a Field Guide to Edible and Inedible Fungi. Guilford, Connecticut: Falcon Guide. p. 453. ISBN 0-7627-3109-5.
  7. ^ a b Schalkwijk-Barendsen HME. (1991). Mushrooms of Western Canada. Edmonton, Canada: Lone Pine Publishing. p. 346. ISBN 0-919433-47-2.
  8. ^ Ammirati JF, McKenny M, Stuntz DE. (1987). The New Savory Wild Mushroom. Seattle, Washington: University of Washington Press. p. 194. ISBN 0-295-96480-4.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  9. ^ a b c d e f Arora D. (1986). Mushrooms Demystified: A Comprehensive Guide to the Fleshy Fungi. Berkeley, California: Ten Speed Press. pp. 693–4. ISBN 0-89815-169-4.
  10. ^ a b c d e Dickinson C, Lucas J. (1982). VNR Color Dictionary of Mushrooms. New York, New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. p. 29. ISBN 978-0-442-21998-7.
  11. ^ Gray SF. (1821). A Natural Arrangement of British Plants. London, UK: Baldwin, Cradock and Joy. p. 584.
  12. ^ a b Roberts P, Evans S. (2011). The Book of Fungi. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. p. 520. ISBN 978-0-226-72117-0.
  13. ^ a b Laessoe T, Pegler DN, Spooner B. (1995). British Puffballs, Earthstars and Stinkhorns: An Account of the British Gasteroid Fungi. Kew, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens. p. 152. ISBN 0-947643-81-8.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  14. ^ a b Miller HR, Miller OK. (1988). Gasteromycetes: Morphological and Developmental Features, with Keys to the Orders, Families, and Genera. Eureka, California: Mad River Press. p. 40. ISBN 0-916422-74-7.
  15. ^ a b Natarajan K, Purushothama KB. (1987). "On the occurrence of Lycoperdon perlatum in Pinus patula plantations in Tamil Nadu" (PDF). Current Science. 56 (21): 1117–8.
  16. ^ Nutritional values are based on chemical analysis of Turkish specimens, conducted by Colak and colleagues at the Department of Chemistry, Karadeniz Technical University. Source: Colak A, Faiz Ö, Sesli E. (2009). "Nutritional composition of some wild edible mushrooms" (PDF). Türk Biyokimya Dergisi [Turkish Journal of Biochemistry]. 34 (1): 25–31.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  17. ^ United States Food and Drug Administration (2024). "Daily Value on the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels". Retrieved 2024-03-28.
  18. ^ National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Health and Medicine Division; Food and Nutrition Board; Committee to Review the Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium (2019). Oria, Maria; Harrison, Meghan; Stallings, Virginia A. (eds.). Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium. The National Academies Collection: Reports funded by National Institutes of Health. Washington, DC: National Academies Press (US). ISBN 978-0-309-48834-1. PMID 30844154.
  19. ^ Kuo M. (2007). 100 Edible Mushrooms. Ann Arbor, Michigan: The University of Michigan Press. p. 192. ISBN 0-472-03126-0.
  20. ^ Lemin M, Vasquez A, Chacon S. (2010). "Etnomicología y comercialización de hongos en mercados de tres poblados del noreste del estado de Puebla, México". Brenesia (in Spanish) (73/74): 58–63. ISSN 0304-3711. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  21. ^ Marley G. (2010). Chanterelle Dreams, Amanita Nightmares: The Love, Lore, and Mystique of Mushrooms. White River Junction, Vermont: Chelsea Green Publishing. p. 49. ISBN 1-60358-214-2.
  22. ^ Taft TA, Cardillo RC, Letzer D, Kaufman CT, Kazmierczak JJ, Davis JP. (July 29, 1994). "Respiratory Illness Associated with Inhalation of Mushroom Spores – Wisconsin, 1994". Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 43 (29). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: 525–6. Retrieved 2011-09-11.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  23. ^ Strand RD, Neuhauser EBD, Somberger CF. (1967). "Lycoperdonosis". New England Journal of Medicine. 277 (2): 89–91. doi:10.1056/NEJM196707132770209. PMID 6027138.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  24. ^ Rubensohn M. (2009). "Inhalation pneumonitis in a dog from spores of puffball mushrooms". Canadian Veterinary Journal. 50 (1): 93. PMC 2603663. PMID 19337622.
  25. ^ Buckeridge D, Torrance A, Daly M. (2011). "Puffball mushroom toxicosis (lycoperdonosis) in a two-year-old dachshund". Veterinary Record. 168 (11): 304. doi:10.1136/vr.c6353. PMID 21498199.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  26. ^ Ramsey RW. (1980). "Lycoperdon nettyana, a new puffball from western Washington State". Mycotaxon. 11 (1): 185–8.
  27. ^ Maghembe JA, Redhead JF. (1984). "A survey of ectomycorrhizal fungi in pine plantations in Tanzania". East African Agricultural and Forestry Journal. 45 (3): 203–6. ISSN 0012-8325.
  28. ^ Zhishu B, Zheng G, Taihui L. (1993). The Macrofungus Flora of China's Guangdong Province. New York, New York: Columbia University Press. p. 555. ISBN [[Special:BookSources/978-962-201-556-5 |978-962-201-556-5 [[Category:Articles with invalid ISBNs]]]]. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  29. ^ Thind KS, Thind IPS. (1982). "Gasteromycetes of the Himalayas, India. 10". Research Bulletin of the Panjab University Science. 33 (1–2): 139–50. ISSN 0555-7631.
  30. ^ Kasuya T. (2004). "Gasteromycetes of Chiba Prefecture, Central Honshu, Japan – I. The family Lycoperdaceae". Journal of the Natural History Museum and Institute Chiba. 8 (1): 1–11. ISSN 0915-9452.
  31. ^ Jordan M. (2004). The Encyclopedia of Fungi of Britain and Europe. London, UK: Frances Lincoln. p. 357. ISBN 0-7112-2378-5.
  32. ^ Baseia UG. (2005). "Some notes on the genera Bovista and Lycoperdon (Lycoperdaceae) in Brazil". Mycotaxon. 91: 81–6.
  33. ^ Jeppson M. (2006). "The genus Lycoperdon in Greenland and Svalbard". In Boertmann D, Knudsen H. (eds) (ed.). Arctic and Alpine Mycology. Meddelelser om Grønland Bioscience. Vol. 6. Copenhagen, Denmark: Museum Tusculanum Press. p. 106. ISBN 978-87-635-1277-0. {{cite book}}: |editor-last= has generic name (help)
  34. ^ Moreno G, Lizárraga M, Esqueda M, Coronado ML. (2010). "Contribution to the study of gasteroid and secotioid fungi of Chihuahua, Mexico". Mycotaxon. 112: 291–315.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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  36. ^ Falandysz J, Lipka K, Kawano M, Brzostowski A, Dadej M, Jedrusiak A, Puzyn T. (2003). "Mercury content and its bioconcentration factors in wild mushrooms at Łukta and Morag, northeastern Poland". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 51 (9): 2832–6. doi:10.1021/jf026016l. PMID 12696981.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  37. ^ Quince J-P. (1990). "Lycoperdon perlatum, un champignon accumulateur de métaux lourds et de sélènium". Mycologia Helvetica (in French). 3 (4): 477–86. ISSN 0256-310X. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
  38. ^ McCreight JD, Schroeder DB. (1977). "Cadmium, lead and nickel content of Lycoperdon perlatum Pers. in a roadside environment". Environmental Pollution. 13 (3): 265–8. doi:10.1016/0013-9327(77)90045-3.
  39. ^ Szummy A, Adamski M, Winska K, Maczka W. (2010). "Identyfikacja związków steroidowych i olejków eterycznych z Lycoperdon perlatum". Przemysł Chemiczny (in Polish). 89 (4): 550–3. ISSN 0033-2496. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  40. ^ Ramesh C, Pattar MG. (2010). "Antimicrobial properties, antioxidant activity and bioactive compounds from six wild edible mushrooms of western ghats of Karnataka, India". Pharmacognosy Research. 2 (2): 107–12. doi:10.4103/0974-8490.62953. PMC 3140106. PMID 21808550.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
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  44. ^ Almendros G, Martín F, González-Vila FJ, Martínez AT. (1987). "Melanins and lipids in Lycoperdon perlatum fruit bodies". Transactions of the British Mycological Society. 89 (4): 533–7. doi:10.1016/S0007-1536(87)80087-6.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  45. ^ Rhugenda-Banga N, Welter A, Jadot J, Casimir J. (1979). "Un nouvel acide amine isole de Lycoperdon perlatum". Phytochemistry (in French). 18 (3): 482–4. doi:10.1016/S0031-9422(00)81892-0. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  46. ^ Kaname M, Yoshifuji S. (1992). "1st synthesis of lycoperdic acid". Tetrahedron Letters. 33 (52): 8103–4. doi:10.1016/S0040-4039(00)74730-7.
  47. ^ Yoshifuji S, Kaname M. (1995). "Asymmetric synthesis of lycoperdic acid". Chemical & Pharmaceutical Bulletin. 43 (10): 1617–20. ISSN 0009-2363.
  48. ^ Makino K, Shintani K, Yamatake T, Hara O, Hatano K, Hamada Y. (2002). "Stereoselective synthesis of (S)-(+)-lycoperdic acid through an endo selective hydroxylation of the chiral bicyclic lactam enolate with MoOPH". Tetrahedron. 58 (48): 9737–40. doi:10.1016/S0040-4020(02)01254-1.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  49. ^ Nedelcheva D, Antonova D, Tsvetkova S, Marekov I, Momchilova S, Nikolova-Damyanova B, Gyosheva M. (2007). "TLC and GC‐MS probes into the fatty acid composition of some Lycoperdaceae mushrooms". Journal of Liquid Chromatography & Related Technologies. 30 (18): 2717–27. doi:10.1080/10826070701560629.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

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