Serer people

Serer Kings

Two Serer Kings from the Kingdom of Sine.

The Serer People

Regions with significant populations
Senegal (1,840,712.1), Gambia (31,900), Mauritania small number (3500) also found overseas.
Languages
Serer proper, Cangin languages, Wolof French (Senegal and Mauritania), English (The Gambia),
Religion
Serer Religion, some practice Christianity and Islam
Related ethnic groups
Wolof people, Toucouleur people and Lebou people

Carte des peuplades du Sénégal de l'abbé Boilat (1853): an ethnic map of Senegal at the time of French colonialism. The pre-colonial states of Baol, Sine and Saloum are arrayed along the southwest coast, with the inland areas marked "Peuple Sérère".

The Serer people (also spelt "Sérère", "Sereer", "Serere", "Seereer" and sometimes wrongly "Serre") along with the Jola people are acknowledged to be the oldest inhabitants of The Senegambia.

In modern day Senegal, the Serer people live in the west-central part of the country, running from the southern edge of Dakar to The Gambian border.The Serer-Sine (also known as "Seex" or "Sine-Sine") occupy the ancient Sine and Saloum areas (now part of modern day independent Senegal). In The Gambia, they occupy parts of old "Nuimi" and "Baddibu" as well as The Gambian "Kombo". The Serer-Noon occupy the ancient area of Thiès in modern day Senegal. The Serer-Ndut are found in southern Cayor and north west of ancient Thiès. The Serer-Njeghen occupy old Baol; the Serer-Palor occupies the west central, west southwest of Thiès and the Serer-Laalaa occupy west central, north of Thiès and the Tambacounda area.

The Serer people are the third largest ethnic group in Senegal making up 14.7% of the Senegalese population. In Gambia they make up less than 2% of the population. Along with Senegal and The Gambia, they are also found in small numbers in southern Mauritania. Some notable Gambian Serers include Isatou Njie-Saidy, Vice President of The Gambia since 20 March 1997, and the late Senegambian historian, politician and advocate for Gambia's independence during the colonial era - Alhaji Alieu Ebrima Cham Joof. In Senegal they include Leopold Sedar Senghor and Abdou Diouf (first and second president of Senegal respectively).

Serer subgroups

The Serer people include the Serer-Sine, Serer-Noon (sometimes spelt "Serer-None" or "Serer-Non"), Serer-Ndut (also spelt "N’doute"), Serer-Njeghene (sometimes spelt "Serer-Dyegueme" or "Serer-Gyegem" or "Serer-N'Diéghem"), Serer-Safene (speakers of the Saafi dialect of the Serer language), Serer-Niominka, Serer-Palor (also known as "Falor", "Palar", "Siili", "Siili-Mantine", "Siili-Siili", "Waro" or just "Serer"), and the Serer-Laalaa (sometimes known as "Laa", "La" or "Lâ" or just "Serer"). Each group speaks Serer-Sine or a different Cangin language. "Serer" is the standard English spelling. "Seereer" or "Sereer" reflects the actual pronunciation of the name and are mostly used by Senegalese Serer historians or scholars.

Ethnonym

The name "Serer" which not only identifies the people but also their language, culture, tradition, etc is deemed by many anthropologists, linguists and historians (some of whom include Issa Laye Thiaw, Cheikh Anta Diop and Henry Gravrand (Henri Gravrand) to be an ancient and sacred word just as the Serer language itself.

History of the Serer people

Prehistory

Serer civilisation

The first picture is of the Senegambian stone circles (megaliths) which runs from Senegal all the way to The Gambia and described by UNESCO as "the largest concentration of stone circles seen anywhere in the world". The second picture is in (modern day Mauritania)see West Saharan montane xeric woodlands. The third picture to the right is of Tassili n'Ajjer and the forth rock art in Mauritania.

In Charles Becker's report and analysis of the historical vestiges of Serer Country in modern day Senegambia, the diversity of Serer culture manifested across dialects, family and social organisation which reflect different historical territories were observed. In his paper titled "Vestiges historiques, trémoins matériels du passé clans les pays Sereer", Becker noted two types of relics:

• The non material remains which are cultural in nature
• Material remains, which are many revealed through products or artefacts

Although many Serer artefacts remain unknown, unlisted and preserved despite the efforts in 1960s and 1970s to collect, archive and document them all, many material relics were found in different Serer Countries, most of which refer to the past origins of Serer families, villages and Serer Kingdoms. Some of these Serer relics included gold, silver and metals. In mention just a few types of known objects found in Serer Countries, he divided them into two types:

1. the remnants of earlier populations.

These are the traces left by the proto-populations with which the Serer people have been in contact with "when they (the Serers) were the "Irenus" (Irenaeus) of Futa" (previously Tekrur).

2. Laterite megaliths carved planted in circular structures with stones directed towards the east are found only in small parts of ancient Saalum.

The sand tumulus, on the other hand which resembles ancestral tombs (lomb in Serer language) still built by Sereer are observed everywhere including the Kingdom of Sine, Jegem (Njegem), Saluum, with densities expressed below (see table).

Note: The following are now regions with their cities, towns and villages:

Serer archaeological sites
The Baol:- with 6 sectors, totalling 383 sites and 1921 tumulus. Tassett and Diobas - 37 sites and 121 tumulus. Fissel, Diak, Mbadane and Dimag - 114 sites and 503 tumulus. Lambaye, Kaba, Polek and Gat - 63 sites and 324 tumulus. Baba Garage, Pègue, Guéoul and Ndogal - 41 sites and 178 tumulus. Diourbel. Bounkoye, Ndadène, Diète and Salao - 50 sites and 188 tumulus. Mbacké. La (Lâ) and Kael - 78 sites and 607 tumulus.
The Sine (Kingdom of Sine):- with 3 sectors, has 248 sites and 977 tumulus. Tataguine, Diéghem (Njegem), Western Sine - 41 sites and 251 tumulus. Diakhao, North-East Sine - 82 sites and 268 tumulus. Maroute 125 sites and 458 tumulus.
The Saloum (Kingdom of Saloum):- with 6 sectors, possessing 393 sites and 1514 tumulus. Gandiaye, North-East Saloum, Marigots de Gandiaye, Sikhane, Diokoul and Ngouloul - 129 sites and 450 tumulus. Ouadiour - 99 sites and 335 tumulus. Kaolack - 66 sites and 292 tumulus. Kolobane - Ngaye–Signy - 55 sites and 233 tumulus. Mbos - 22 sites and 53 tumulus. Left bank of Saloum - 22 sites and 151 tumulus. Megalithic zone: Many megalithic sites include mounts in the ancient Kingdom of Saalum, with a frequent association of mound of sand with megalithic stones – front to East.

Shell mounds are also found in the islands and around the estuary of Saloum. In the provinces of the Gandun and Numi, Saloum and in the south-western Sine around Joal, 139 sites have been identified and they sometimes have shaped burial mounds. These relics are very numerous and imposing. In Baol for instance, the importance of these vestiges is "likely to be about the Serer material culture". The graves of the founding ancestors were also very often sanctified as "Fangool" (singular: "ancestral sprit" or "saint" in Serer religion). Such relics associated with the ancestors are often venerated relics. For example, the relics evoking memories of migration or foundation of states are sometimes sacralised. The remnants of royalty in the Kingdoms of Sine and Saloum are similar because the "Geulowars" (the last maternal dynasty in Sine and Saloum - 14th to 20th century) have the same Serer tradition, but there are peculiarities in the objects and the scene of the coronation of royalty and power which have existed since the beginnings of dynasty with the annual ritual and mandatory ceremonies. The family relics in other Serer Countries which are brought from Takrur (now Futa Toro) or Kaabu by the founders were also noted in places of worship of the village or province history. This may be stone, wood, musical instruments, ceremonial objects used by the Saltigue (Serer High Priests and Priestesses) or "Yaal Pangool". These relics kept by families since ancient times remain largely unknown. There are two types of Serer relics relating to two lineages that come into play in the social organisation of the Serer people:

• "kucarla" (kalcular) which means paternal lineage or paternal inheritance.
• "ƭeen yaay" which means maternal lineage or maternal inheritance.

The history of the Serer people who resided at Takrur (now called Futa Toro) which was part of what is generally referred to as Serer Country, the influence of their culture, history, religion and tradition on the land is summarized by Becker in the following terms:

"Finally we should remember the important relic call Sereer in Fouta (Futa Toro), but also in the former countries of the Ferlo, Jolof and Kajoor (Cayor), which marked the migration of proto-Sereer, whose imprint on the Fouta was so significant and remains in the memory of the Halpulaareen"(speakers of the Pulaar language in Senegal and Gambia such as Fula and Toucouleur people).

In the archaelogical discoveries such as in ancient Thiemassass (the Thies region), scholars report that the Serer are the descendants of the ancient Tiemassassien (an ancient people whose culture is referred to as the Tiemassassien culture or industry). Flint weapons dating from about 100,000 years ago have been found in several Serer Countries including ancient Thiemassas as well as Stone Age tools dating from about 2000 BC, discovered in the the sand dunes of Cape Point and Fajara in Gambia. Gold to which Becker refer to above have also been found in Serer Country.

Medieval history to present

The medieval history of the Serer people is partly characterised by resisting Islamization from the 11th century during the Almoravid movement (which would later result in the Serers of Takrur migration to the south) to the 19th century Marabout movement of Senegambia; continuation of the old Serer paternal dynasties but the end of the Wagadou maternal dynasty in favour of Guelowar in the 14th century; and religious based anti-Serer sentiments in the modern times brought on by their actions in resisting Islamization over the centuries particular from the 19th century.

Opposition to the Almoravids and Islamization

Before the renaming of the kingdom of Sine in the 14th century, the Sine area was populated by the Serers from the Kingdom of Takrur now called Fouta-Toro as well as the indigenous Serer people who have resided there for millenniums. As one of the oldest inhabitants of the Senegambia region to which Takrur belonged, they built civilisations there as well as in Mauritania, going back thousands of years, set up royal dynasties, political and legal frameworks as well as a priestly class who upheld the religious affairs of the region.

After the Arab invasion of North Africa, the Berbers of the north advanced Islam via the Almoravid movement, penetrating parts of Africa, Europe and Asia. In 1030 AD, the revolutionist King War Jabi (a part Toucouleur, part Bambara and Soninke) - son of Rabi and father of Leb came into power backed by his allies (the Almoravids) from the north particularly the cleric Abdallah ibn Yasin -, whom he had invited for advice and guidance and who would later come back to Takrur to form an alliance with his son Leb after War Jabi's own death in 1040 ad. Leb would also later form a coalition forces with another Almoravid Yahya Ibn Ibrahim whom he would send a contingent force to advance the Almoravids cause. According to historians such as Ajayi, Crowder, etc, the Almoravid's hold on Tekrur and their ultimate contribution to the fall of the Ghana Empire could not have happened without the help of their African converts such as the Toucouleur and Fula who were part of the Almoravid army. Mahmood (a Fula), who was previously nominated, elected and crowned king, although Muslim, he was not an orthodox one was dethroned by the revolutionist. In 1035 AD, King War Jabi introduced force conversion to Islam and sharia law which even became well enforced by his son Leb and their Almoravid allies after his death. As a result of the new religious movement and Sharia law, the Toucouleur along with the Fula people were the first to convert to Islam and would also later join the Almoravid movement against the Ghana

The Serers resisted conversion and engaged in the battlefield to defend not only the Serer religion, but also their own power and wealth especially the Serer "Lamanic" class whose wealth and power is achieved through the Lamanic lineage.

At Saly (1035), the Serers of Takrur defeated the Almoravids and their African ally army forcing them to seek refuge in Mauritania. Though victorious in battles against the Muslim coalition army, they couldn't maintain it as the coalition forces advance and the Serers were finally defeated. After their defeat, the Serers of Takrur still rejected to convert to Islam and decided to abandoned Takrur instead to join their distant Serer relatives in the Sine.

In the Sine, the Serers practised their religion and the nobility ruled by the title "Maat" (also spelt "Maad" or "Mad" or "Laman" - synonymous to Maad denoting kings and landed gentry). The ordinary Serer earned their living from agriculture, animal husbandry, fishing, boat building (an ancient Serer tradition) and transporting people over the river.

The jihads that had affected Tekrur in the 11th century which led to the Serers of Tekrur exodus only affected those Serers living in Tekrur at the time. It did not apply to all Serer people. The Serer people are very diverse and spread throughout the Senegambia founding towns and villages, the Serer names of these towns and villages still remain today.

"...the Serer traversed vast expanses of territory during pre-colonial times and saw the entire region (the Senegambia region) as their home, as their history of migration in the area clearly shows." (Godfrey Mwakikagile, p136).

The death of the Almoravid leader: Abu-Bakr Ibn-Umar

By 1054, Abu-Bakr Ibn-Umar one of the leaders of the Almoravid, destroyed Aoudaghost of the Ghana Empire (proper: "Wagadou Empire"). After the death of Yahya Ibn Ibrahim (another Almoravid leader), Abu-Bakr Ibn-Umar succeeded him. By 1076, Abu Bakr captured Kumbi Saleh the capital of the Ghana Empire. After his victory, Abu-Bakr Ibn-Umar tried to get deeper into Senegal in the heart of Serer Country. In November 1087 of the Christian calendar, the Serer King Ama Gôdô Maat defeated Abu-Bakr Ibn-Umar and killed him with a poisoned arrow. In the Serer tradition, Ama Gôdô Maat also known as Bur Haman, was a Serer king not a fugitive, "Maat" (or "Maad" also "Mad") is the title of the old Serer kings. Although Abu Bakr was a great military leader who had a reputation for unifying his army against a common foe and have had several victories in other areas, his jihad in Serer Country was unsuccessful.

The effects of the religious wars in Tekrur

The inhabitants of Tekrur were the first to convert to Islam in the Senegambia region, but after the Serers of Tekrur were defeated by the coalition forces which resulted to their exodus, Tekrur completely lost its Serer identity.

Independence and destruction of the Ghana Empire

The Serer victory over the Almoravid assault in 1087 was a contributor as to why the Almoravids could not keep their hold on the Ghana Empire (proper: Wagadou Empire) and totally lost it, because after their leader Abu Bakr was killed (who overthrow the Ghana in 1076), "greed and disunity" among themsleves (the Almoravids) as to who should lead the Almoravid movement led to their collapse in the region as Ghana regained its independence in 1087 AD (that same year Abu Bakr was killed). Albeit the death of Abu Bakr, the Emperor (The Ghana) totally bankrupt due to the wars that had affected his Empire over years and his inability to maintain his power resulted in the total destruction of the Empire as former Kingdoms within the Empire gained their independence. Although the death of Abu Bakr marked the disintegration of the southern wing of the Almoravid movement as well as a northward migration as result of war casualties, Abu Bakr's former victories against the Ghana had left a significant impact on the Wagadou Empire, because by the time of Abu Bakr's death, only Aukar and Bassinkunu were actually in the hands of the Ghana (Emperor), as Diara and Kaniaga joined a list of kingdoms that had acquired their independence.

King N'Diadian N'Diaye of Djoloff (Jolof)

Njaajaan Njie (also spelt "Njajan Njie" or "Ndiandian Ndiaye" - many variations) who is credited as the founder of the Jolof Empire by the Wolof people is not the son of Abu-Bakr Ibn-Umar but the son of a Serer father and a Toucouleur mother. Njaajaan was the founder of the first Wolof kingdom and claimed by the Wolof as their ancestor. In the oral tradition as well as scholars, the Wolof, Lebou and the Toucouleur all claim Serer ancestry and are all related to the Serer people.

"Tukulor are a mixture of Fulani and Serer"(Foltz, p136)

The surname "Njie" (or "Ndiaye" - French spelling in Senegal also "N'Diaye") is a Serer surname in origin. "Mam Kumba Njie" is a Serer Goddess, a religion that predates Islam and the Almoravid movement. Njaanjaan ruled in the 14th century (c 1360AD) after the battle of Turbang in 1335. Abu-Bakr Ibn-Umar died in November 1087 AD. There was at least three hundred years separating them. Although Fatoumatta Sallah (a Toucouleur) was his mother, Abu-Bakr Ibn-Umar (the 11th century Almoravid) was not his father. Baboucarr Njie (a Serer living in Waalo) was his father, not Abu-Bakr Ibn-Umar the Almoravid. As Cheikh Anta Diop and Egbuna P. Modum puts it:

"History teaches us that King N'Diadian N'Diaye of Djoloff (Jolof), the first King of the Valaf (Wolof), had a Toucoulor mother and an Arab father. But there is evidence of contradiction here. The son of an Arab can hardly bear the totemic name N'Diaye. And it is common knowledge that both the name and surname of this king come from the exclamation "This is N'Diadian N'Diaye" (an expression meaning "calamity" or extraordinary) made by a Serer marabout (Animist diviner in this case) the first time he saw N'Diadian, whose appearance from nowhere seemed like a miracle to the Djoloff-Djoloff (inhabitants of Jolof) ..."

It is common for some Senegambian Muslims communities to exaggerate their genealogy or be exaggerated by some griots in an attempt to trace descend to Arabs and therefore to the Quraysh (tribe) and ultimately to Mohammad. This is an attempt to claim greater Islamic legitimacy.

In Njaajaan's Njie's epic, scholars observed that:

"there are resonances and implications behind the very multilinguality of the original performances (griot performances). Not only did the performers use words from (Sereer), French, Arabic, and Tukulor (Tocouleur) embedded in the Wolof base text, but they also rendered in Wolof sections of texts that they indicated were derived from Sereer sources. Each usage had implications of social attitudes, Islamic legitimacy, and personal style."

Senegambia and the death of the Mansa Jolofing

In other parts of the Senegambia, the Serer people divided the relevant areas into Lamanats, directed by Lamans (kings, - descendants of ancient Serer kings and the landed gentry). The Serer who have migrated from Tekrur to join their distant Serer relatives created a southward migration for Mandinka migrants. According to scholars, the Mandinkas were either defeated in battle or incorporated into Serer society. The Serers ruled over the Wolof kingdom of Jolof. They were ruling Jolof before the Jaw, Ngom, Mengue and Njie dynasties (who were all Serers with the exeception of the "Mengue" dynasty who were Lebou - "Mengue" or "Mbengue" is a Lebou surname). However, these Serer and Lebou rulers of Jolof (predominantly a Wolof area) became assimilated into Wolof culture. One of the Serer kings of Jolof referred to as Mansa Jolofing (also "Jolofing Mansa") meaning King of Jolof in the Mandinka language) was a Serer known for his involvement in the occult during the reign of Mansa Sundiata Keita of Mali in the 13th century. When Sundiata Keita sent his men to go to the Kingdom of Jolof to buy horses with a caravan loaded with gold, the Serer King of Jolof ransacked the caravan, took all the gold as well as the horses. That incident is referred to as "the robbery of the horses". Having found out what happened, Sundiata Keita sent his cousin and general Mansa Tiramang Trawally – (future conqueror of Kaabu) to Jolof to assassinate the Serer king. It was Mansa Tiramang's victory over the king of Jolof which led to the Mandinka Subou song created to mark the Mandinka's victory over the Serer king.

Battle of Turubang and Guelowar refuges to Sine

Main article: Guelowar

The Guelowars (many spelling variations: Gelwar; Geulwar, Gelwaar) were relatives and an off-shot of the Nyanthio (also Nyanco) maternal dynasty of Kaabu (in modern day Guinea Bissau). They left Kaabu following the Battle of Turubang 1335.They were Mandinka descendants of Mansa Tiramang Trawally (many variations: "Tira Makhang Trawally"; "Tiramanghan Trawally"; "Tiramang Traore") of Mali. It was a dynastic war between the two maternal royal houses of Nyanthio and Guelowar, the Guelowars escaped to the Sine and were granted asylum by "The Great Council of Lamans" (the Serer nobility).The marriages between the Serer paternal clans such as Faye, Joof and Ndiaye to the Guelwar women created the Serer paternal dynasties and a Guelowar maternal dynasty which replaced the old Wagadou maternal dynasty. Maysa Wali Jaxateh Manneh (many variations in spelling: "Maissa Wali"; "Maissa Wally" also known as "Maysa Wali Jon" or "Maysa Wali Dione") - (reigned 1350) was the first Guelowar king of Sine post Turubang 1335. Having served for several years as legal advisor to "The Great Council of Lamans" and assimilated into Serer culture, he was elected and crowned the first Guelowar king of Sine in (1350). His sisters and neices were married off to the Serer nobility and the offspring of these unions where the kings of Sine and later Saloum.

The effects of Islam on Serer people

See also: The Battle of Fandane-Thiouthioune

19th century Marabout Movement

The Battle of Fandane-Thiouthioune (18th July 1867) commonly as The Battle of Somb, was a religious war between the Muslim Marabout Movement of Senegambia and the Serer people of Sine. On 18 July 1867, the leader of the Marabouts Maba Diakhou Bâ (many variations: "Maba Jahou Bah") tried to launch jihad in the Serer Kingdom of Sine but was defeated and killed by the King of Sine Maat Sine Kumba Ndoffene Famak Joof. Maba Diakhou Bâ was a slave trader who raided Mandinka villages in The Gambia for slaves as well as killing pagans. He was however a very charismatic leader in the Marabout sect who saw the propagation of Islam in Senegambia and an Islamic empire as his divine mission. Although he did not achieve an Islamic empire, he had managed to conquer several villages and his movement were responsible for the Islamization of many Senegambians. He is also a saint and a hero to many Senegambian Muslim communities for his efforts in propagating Islam in the region during the 19th century.

Anti Serer sentiments

In regards to the Serer people's medieval to 19th century history in resisting Islamization, Klein notes that:

"The most important factor dividing the peoples of Senegambia was the differential impact of Islam. In this, the Serer stood out as the one group that had undergone no conversion."

"Islam has divided African communities into believers and non believers..."

The Senegambia region which includes Senegal and The Gambia are predominantly Muslim countries, although there is some degree of syncretization of Islam with the African belief system as common in many parts of Africa. As fierce opponents of Islam for nearly a millennia, anti-Serer sentiments are not uncommon. There are several anti Serer sentiments the purpose of which is to deform Serer history. For example the claim that the Fulas drove out the Serers from Futa Toro (formerly Tekrur) in the 19th century and enslaved them; the "Tondyon" dynasty of Takrur that succeeded the Dyaago dynasty of Takrur in the 14th century were Serers and that "Tondyon" in Mandinka means "crowned slave"; the Serers were mixing with the Portuguese in the 15th century and were responsible for mixed people in Senegambia; the Guelowars conquered Sine etc.

According to historical sources, the Serers of Tekrur left Tekrur in the eleventh century and the Fulas and Toucouleurs resided there, as such, the Fulas could not have driven out Serers from Futa (previously Tekrur) in the 19th century when the Serers have left almost eight hundred years earlier. In similarity, the Serers could not have set up a Tondyon dynasty in the 14th century when they have already left three hundred years earlier. Alvise Cadamosto, - the 15th century Venetian navigator, slave trader and chronologist give us some insight about his voyages in Senegambia. Some of his accounts are as follows:

• Along the Grande Côteat at an anchor point, Alvise called it the "Palma di Budomel.

"Budomel" actually means the "Damel" of Cayor (the King of Cayor) who ruled over the Wolof inhabitants of Cayor.

• Alvise stated that this "point" has previously been used by the Portuguese traders and dated that trade between the Portuguese and Wolof was established in 1450 – "that was five years before I went on this voyage" Alvise noted. The chronicles of Henrican discoveries by Gomes Eanes de Zurara ended in 1448 and conflict between the Wolof people and the Portuguese were noted. Although it is unknown how peace and trade resumed between the Wolof and Portuguese, in Peter E. Russell's book (Prince Henry 'the Navigator': a life. New Haven, Conn: Yale University Press, 2000. Page 297) he cited a document (f-1489) which demonstrates that Lourenço Dias opened trade again between the Wolof and the Portuguese. Lourenço was of course the same person who participated in the slave raiding of Lançarote de Freitas between 1445 and 1446 and returned between 1448 and 1450.

Alvise wanted to trade horses for slaves which was the main income generator for Wolofs at that "point" and Alvise is reported to have sold seven horses and woolen products for 100 Wolof slaves.

• At his time in Wolof Cayor, Alvise got to meet the king of Cayor and stayed with the king’s nephew named "Bisboror" for atleast a month.
• Accompanied by Usodimare, they decided to sail further south and finally reached the Sine-Saloum delta, which is inhabited by the Serer people whom he called "Sereri" (a term his Wolof interpreter might have used – which means "Serer of …"). In his chronicle, Alvise has nothing good to say about the Serer people. He referred to the Serers on the border as "idolaters of great cruelty." Alvise has never set foot in Serer Country and his opinions about the Serers is mostly coming from his Wolof interpreters. According to Alvise, he was the one who named the Saloum River as "Rio di Barbacini" as it would be become known in European maps. Although Alvise, his Portuguese entourage and slaves they have been carrying from Cayor tried to rest there before moving on, they decided against it when one of his Wolof interpreters got off the ship and tried to make contact with the local Serers and was killed on the spot for daring to bring foreigners into their land. In his chronicle, Alvise described how the Serers people seeing their ship gathered at the beach looking menacing and unwelcoming. As a result, the Portuguese occupants of the ship were ordered not to get off the ship. Instead, they moved the ship further back and ordered no one to come off the ship apart from their Wolof interpreter whom they sent to make contact with the Serer natives to negotiate on their behalf. Their Wolof interpreter was killed by the Serers for his heresy. The occupants of the ship including Alvise himself still didn't dare to come out but headed south to The Gambia.

These Serers are the Serer-Ndut (one of the members of the Serer Group) who resided at that area and refused to submit to the Kings of Cayor. They are renowned warriors who for centuries refused to bow to the Kings of Cayor and have defeated the Kings of Cayor with their armies as Alvise will testify to in his chronicle. Highly feared among the Wolofs of Cayor including the Cayor army itself, they possess a reputation for using poisoned spears and arrows as well as terrorising the Wolofs and Moors of Cayor. Subsequent historians will testify to that fact hence why the Serer-Ndut were never subjugated by the Kings of Cayor but left alone. They are the only group in Cayor who enjoyed their independence and did what they wanted to do without approval from the King. According to Alvise, these Serers differentiated themselves from the Wolof people due to their hatred of slavery and slave trading. Slavery is also forbidden in the Serer religion. As such, when Alvise’s interpreter came off the ship to talk to them, they (the Serer-Ndut) knew exactly what the Wolof and his accompanies wanted and he was killed on the spot. The word "Barbacini" used by Alvise, came from his Wolof interpreter. If he had spoken to the Serers, they would not have used such a term. Although Alvise misspelt and mispronounced the word, the word comes from the Wolof phrase "Bur ba Sine" which means "The King of Sine" who took residence at the Serer Kingdom of Sine. Due to the fact that the Serer-Ndut who resided at the Wolof border refused to submit to the King of Cayor, some groups have used Alvise's commentary literally in reference to the Serer-Ndut of Cayor, by saying the Serer people as a whole didn’t have kings which is factually incorrect. The Serer-Ndut of Cayor refused to bow to the Kings of Cayor, but the Serer people as a whole have Kingdoms and certainly Kings two of which were the Kingdom of Sine and the Kingdom of Saloum and for centuries the Kingdom of Baol. By Alvise distinguishing between the "Sereri" and the "Barbacini", this seems to indicate that he is referring to two different people when in fact, the Kingdom of Sine was a Serer Kingdom where the King of Sine ("Barbacini") took residence. But since he has never set foot in Serer Country, not only was he confused as to what his Wolof interpreters were telling him, but he based his opinions about the Serers mainly from his Wolof interpreters, for whom the Serer Ndut of Cayor brings fear. Although Alvise's chronology provides some insight about Senegambian society in the 15th century, his chronology is full of errors. Commenting on Alvise's entry regarding sand banks in Senegal "which extend about half a mile into the sea", Kerr notes that:

"It is necessary to be cautious with respect to these early voyages, which, having gone through various transcriptions and translations, are liable to numerous errors. In our best charts, this sank bank, intermixed with sunk rocks, extends two miles out to sea…".

Another error made by Alvise is the year Cape Verde was discovered by the Portuguese. According to Alvise, "Cape Verd was so named by the Portuguese, who discovered it about a year before" (i.e. the year before his journey). This is factually inaccurate. In fact, it was discovered in 1446 by Denis Fernandez which was nine years prior to Alvise's entry.

"The first contemporary description of the Wolof people came in 1455 with the arrival of the Venetian, Ca da Mosto, followed closely by Portuguese navigators and traders, notably on the Island of Gorée which became infamous for its role in the slave trade with the Americas. The Portuguese intermarried with the local population and a Portuguese Creole language, closely linked to Mandinka evolved."

These early European sources appear to demonstrate that, the Portuguese were not romantically in contact with the Serers but with the Wolofs and others. In the 18 to 19th centuries, among the Wolof population of the coastal areas of Senegal such as Gorée and St-Louis, Burke and Else notes that:

"While Omar Tall had been active inland, the Europeans had been busy on the coast. Throughout the 18th century, the French settlements on Gorée and St-Louis grew considerably. As the Portuguese had done before them, French settlers intermarried with the local Wolof, and by the 1790s the majority of the town's populations were of mixed race."

The intermarriages between French traders and Wolof women created a mulatto class in the Saint-Louis area who adopted the French language and mannerism. In his book "Travels in the interior districts of Africa" , the 18th century Scottish explore Mungo Park noted that:

"The noses of the Jaloffs (Wolofs) are not so much depressed, nor the lips so protuberant, as among the generality of Africans; and although their skin is of the deepest black, they are considered by the white traders, as the most slightly Negroes in this part of the Continent."

According to historians such as Curso, Lovejoy, Klein, etc:

"The Serer of Siin had a very belligerent reputation for attacking and mistreating Europeans, despite the fact that their ruler was a good customer of the Portuguese and tried to protect traders. The Portuguese were aware of the importance of appeasing the local powers. Even if not attacking the Portuguese directly, a hostile ruler could forbid his subjects from selling food to the Europeans."

Like the early European sources, the 18th to 19th century sources also appears to indicate that, the Portuguese and French were romantically linked with the Wolof populations and other groups and not with the Serers. They also appear to indicate Wolofs' long participation in the Atlantic Slave Trade and the selling of other Wolof people to the European slave traders. Although slavery is forbidden in Serer religion and culture, some Serer kings and nobles did sold prisoners of war in revenge, but not in huge numbers compared to other groups. François G. Richard notes that:

"The Kingdom of Sine remained a modest participant in the Atlantic system, secondary to the larger Wolof, Halpulaar (speakers of the Pulaar language i.e. the Fula people and Toucouleur people) or Mandinka polities surrounding it on all sides... As practices of enslavement intensified among other ethnic groups (i.e. Wolof people, Fula people, Toucouleur people and Mandinka people) during the 18th century, fuelling a lucrative commerce in captives and the rise of internal slavery, the Siin (Sine) may have been demoted to the rank of second player, in so far as the kingdom was never a major supplier of captives."

Klein (1968) and Mbogj (1978) provides a similar account:

"In times of peace, the Kingdom of Siin (Sine) more readily supplied grain, cattle and other basic necessities to the French."

The last Serer kings

The last kings of Sine and Saloum were Maat Sine Mahecor Joof (also spelt "Mahecor Diouf") and Maat Saloum Fode Ngui Joof (also spelt "Fodé N’Gouye Diouf") respectively. They both died in 1969. After their deaths, the Serer Kingdoms of Sine and Saloum were incorporated into independent Senegal which gained its independence from France in 1960. The Serer kingdoms of Sine and Saloum are two of few pre-colonial African Kingdoms whose royal dynasty survived up to the 20th.

The Serer kingdoms

Serer kingdoms included the Kingdom of Sine and the Kingdom of Saloum. In addition to these twin Serer kingdoms, the Serers also ruled in the Wolof kingdoms such as Jolof, Waalo, Cayor and Baol. The Kingdom of Baol was originally an old Serer Kingdom ruled by the Serer paternal dynasties such as Joof, Njie etc and the Wagadou maternal dynasty prior to the Battle of Danki in 1549. The "Wolof Empire" (proper: Jolof Empire, Joloff Empire or Empire du Dyoloff - in French) although associated with the Wolof people, in reality it was never ruled by the Wolof. All the so called "Wolof Kingdoms" such as Jolof, Waalo, Cayor and Baol were in actual fact ruled by Serers, Bambaras or Black Moors. Although the population were predominantly Wolofs with the exception of Baol, the rulers of these Kingdoms were not. For example:

• The kings of Jolof have the paternal lineage Njie which is originally Serer. Previous to the "Njie" or "Ndiaye" paternal dynasty, Jolof was ruled by the Ngom and Jaw dynasties who are also Serer in origin and the Mengue (also spelt "Mbengue") dynasty who are Lebou in origin (a tribe that is usually associated with the Wolof but in reality distinct).
• The kings of Waalo came from the Mboge paternal lineage. The surname "Mbooj", "Mboge" or "Mbodj" derives from "Bo" which is Bambara in origin. The surname became Wolofized into "Mbooj" or "Mboge" just as the Fula surname "Bâ" or "Bah" became Wolofized into Mbacké. The three matrilineal dynasties of Waalo: "Joos" (also spelt "Dyoos" or "Djeuss"), "Tedyek" (also spelt "Teedyekk") and "Logar" (also spelt "Loggar") were not Wolofs. The Joos maternal dynasty trace their descend to a Serer princes called Linger Ndoye Demba from the Kingdom of Sine who was given in marriage to the king of Waalo in the 14th century. All the kings and princesses of Waalo with "Joos" maternal lineage were of Serer heritage. The "Tedyek" were Fula and the "Logar" were Moors.
• The Faal paternal dynasty of Cayor and Baol that ruled after 1549 following the Battle of Danki were originally Black Moors. Prior to the Faal dynasty of Cayor and Baol, these two kingdoms were ruled by the Serer people with the patrilineages "Joof" or Diouf, Faye and Njie, and the maternal lineage of Wagadou – members of the royal families from the Ghana Empire (proper "Wagadou Empire") who married into the Serer aristocracy.

At the time of The Jolof Empire, the Kingdom of Jolof was the administrative centre of the Emperor - from the Njie paternal dynasty who are Serers in origin. As such, although the term the "Wolof Empire" or "Jolof Empire" may indicate that it was the Wolof people who were ruling the Empire, in reality, it was ruled by the Serer people who became Wolofized by virtue of the fact that, these Serer kings resided in predominantly Wolof areas such as Jolof, etc and became assimilated into Wolof culture.

Social organization in the Serer kingdoms

The Serer Kings and land owners ( Maat, Maad or Laman or even "Barr" as used by some mainly non-Serers when referring to Serer kings) were at the top of the social strata. The terms "Buur Sine" and "Buur Saloum" (King of Sine and King of Saloum respectively) are Wolof terms when referring to Serer Kings. "Buur" or "Bur" are not Serer terms but Wolof terms. When Serers refer to their kings they say "Maat" or "Mad" or "Maad". The Serer kings divided their capacity as follows (not in order of importance): the King of Sine "Maat Sine" or "Maat Saloum" appointed the chiefs of provinces named "Laman", of "Serer" or "Guelowar" origin (pre 1335 Lamans were not mere province Chiefs but kings, also the Guelowars became Serers and had Serer surnames). All the kings that ruled Serer Kingdoms had Serer surnames with the exception of the Mboge and Faal paternal dynasties whose reigns are very recent and they did not provide many kings. Nevertheless they had Serer mothers hence why they were able to rule in Saloum for instance. These post Turubang Lamans should not be confused with the ancient Lamans who were kings of their State as well as land owners, these recent Lamans were merely provincial chiefs answerable to the King of Sine or King of Saloum; the Farba Kaba (Chief of the Army); the Farba Binda (Minister of Finance also responsible for the the police force and the Royal Palace), "Dialigne" or "Jaligne" (the Chief of the provinces inhabited by the Fula subjects); the Diaraf Beukeneg (Chief of the servants of the Royal Court) and the Serer "Jaraff" who headed the council of nobles some of whose main roles were to advise and elect the Serer Kings. Other notable titles included "Buumi" or "Bumi" (of Serer origin meaning inheritor). This word (Bumi) has been borrowed by the Wolof from the Serer but it is Serer in origin. They were members of the Royal Family and were eligible to succeed after the death of Kings. The "Buur Kevel" or "Buur Geweel" (the Head Griot of the King). This person was also a rather important figure in the Royal Court as well as in wars. Not only did he kept the history and genealogy of the royal dynasty, he was also the advisor to the King. The "Buur Kevel(s)" or "Buur Geweel(s)" were very wealthy and powerful. They had the power to destroy a royal dynasty if they chose to do so. Their other role included accompanying kings to battles; advising kings when and how to launch a war against another kingdom; what the King should eat; how to walk; what to wear; whom to give audience to; whom to employ and whom to sack etc.

Population

As evident in Serer Prehistory, the Serer people are very diverse and for millenniums have colonised the whole of Senegambia and wherever they settled, they gave Serer names to most of which still survives today. Though they spread throughout the Senegambia region, they are more numerous in places like old Baol, Sine, Saloum and in The Gambia which was a colony of the Kingdom of Saloum.

The following table gives the estimated Serer population per country:

Country	Population
Senegal	1,840,712.1
The Gambia	31,900
Mauritania	3500	NB: The population count of the relevant countries especially in Senegal and The Gambia are controversial because there are some who believe populations are fixed to give other ethnicities numerical superiority such as the case of the Wolof people. As evident above, the Wolof people, Toucouleur people and Lebou people all trace their descend to Serer people and are therefore not an independent ethnic group particularly the Wolof. Yet the Wolof are seen as the largest ethnic group in Senegal and third largest in The Gambia. In fact, The Gambian authorities do not even know how many Serer people actually live there. Further, other ethnic groups who have assimilated with the Wolof are counted as Wolof when in fact they are not. Certain organisations especially in Senegal are pushing this phenomenon generally referred to as Wolofization.

Serer languages

Main articles: Serer language and Cangin languages

Most people who identify themselves as Serer speak the Serer language. This is spoken in Sine-Saloum, Kaolack, Diourbel, Dakar, and in Gambia, and is part of the national curriculum of Senegal.

About 200,000 Serer speak various Cangin languages, such as Serer-Ndut and Serer-Safene, which are not closely related to Serer proper. There are clear lexical similarities among the Cangin languages. However, they are more closely related to other languages than to Serer, and vice versa. For comparison in the table below, 85% is approximately the dividing line between dialects and different languages.

Cangin languages and Serer-Sine	% Similarity with Serer-Sine	% Similarity with Serer-Noon	% Similarity with Saafi-Saafi (Serer-Safene)	% Similarity with Serer-Ndut	% Similarity with Serer-Palor	% Similarity with Serer-Laalaa (Serer-Lehar)	Areas they are predominantly found	Estimated population
Serer-Laalaa (Serer-Lehar)	22	84	74	68	68	N/A	West central, north of Thies, Pambal area, Mbaraglov, Dougnan; Tambacounda area. Also found in The Gambia	12,000 (Senegal figures only (2007)
Serer-Ndut	22	68	68	N/A	84	68	West central, northwest of Thiès	38,600 (Senegal figures only (2007)
Serer-Noon	22	N/A	74	68	68	84	Thiès area.	32,900 (Senegal figures only (2007)
Serer-Palor	22	68	74	84	N/A	68	West central, west southwest of Thiès	10,700 (Senegal figures only (2007)
Saafi-Saafi (Serer-Safene)	22	74	N/A	68	74	74	Triangle southwest of and near Thiès (between Diamniadio, Popenguine, and Thiès)	114,000 (Senegal figures only (2007)
Serer-Sine (Not a Cangin Language)	N/A	22	22	22	22	22	West central; Sine and Saloum River valleys. Also in The Gambia and small number in Mauritania	1,154,760 (Senegal - 2006 figures); 31,900 (The Gambia - 2006 figures) and 3,500 (Mauritania 2006 figures)

Serer culture

The Serer people have a very rich and ancient culture that predominates modern day Senegambia which is imitated and enjoyed by all Senegambian ethnic groups. For example the Senegalese wrestling called "Laamb" originated from the Serer Kingdom of Sine. It was a preparatory exercise for war among the warrior class. That style of wrestling (a brutal and violent form) is totally different from the sport wrestling enjoyed by all Senegambian ethnic groups today, nevertheless the ancient rituals are still visible in the sport version. Among the Serers, wrestling is classifed into different techniques and each technique takes several years to master. Children start young trying to master the basics before moving on to the more advance techniques like the "mbapatte", which is one of the oldest tehniques and totally different from modern wrestling. Yékini (whose real name is "Yakhya Diop"), who is a professional wrestler in Senegal is one of the top wrestlers proficient in the "mbapatte" technique. Serer wresting crosses ethnic boundaries and is a favourite past time for Senegalese and Gambians etc.

The Sabar (drum) tradition associated with the Wolof people actually orignated from the Serer people and more so from the Serer Kingdom of Saloum. The Wolof people who migrated to Saloum picked it up and spread it to Wolof Kingdoms. Each motif has a purpose and are used for different occasions. For example the musical motifs representing the family history and genealogy of a particular family; weddings; naming ceremonies; funerals etc.

The "Tassu" tradition (also spelt Tassou) which is the progenitor of rap originated from the Serer people. It was actually used when chanting ancient religious verses. The people would sing then interweave it with a "Tassu". The late Serer Diva Yandé Codou Sène who was the griot of the late and former president of Senegal (Leopold Sedar Senghor) (also a Serer) was proficient in the "Tassu". She was the best "Tassukat" (one who Tassu) of her generation. Originally religious in nature, the griots of Senegambia regardless of ethnic group or religion picked it up from Serer religious practices and still use it in different occasions e.g. marriages, naming ceremonies or when they are just singing the praises of their patrons. Most Senegalese and Gambian artists use it in their songs even the younger generation like "Baay Bia". The Senegalese music legend Youssou N'Dour who is also a Serer, uses "Tassu" in many of his songs. As noted by Ali Colleen Neff:

"The Serer people are known especially for their rich knowledge of vocal and rhythmic practices that infuse their everyday language with complex overlapping cadences and their ritual with intense collaborative layerings of voice and rhythm."

Serer cultural, religious, musical traditions and terminology have had a strong imprint on Senegambia. Even the ancient religious ceremonies of the Serer people which are animist in nature have made their mark on Senegambian people and are borrowed by Senegambian Muslims to describe their Islamic ceremonies. .

The Serers also practice trade, agriculture, fishing, boat building and animal husbandry. Indeed the majority of Serers are farmers and land owners since unmemorable times. Although they practiced animal husbandry, they are less known for that, as in the past, Serer nobles entrusted their herds to the pastoralist Fulas. Even nowadays, some Serers do that. Also, trade is a recent phenomenon among the Serers. For the Serers, the soil (where their ancestors lay in rest) is very important to them and they guard it with jealousy. They have a legal framework governing every aspect of life even land law with strict guidelines. Apart from agriculture (and other forms of production such as animal husbandry, fishing especially the Serer-Niominka, boat building, etc), all other positions especially trade they viewed as vulgar, common and ignoble. This is why in the colonial era especially among the Serer nobles, they would hire others to do the trading on their behalf - acting as middle men, usually the Moors from Mauritania whom to this day they do not trust and are prejudice towards. In the old days, Moors from Mauritania who came to settle in the Serer Kingdoms were ill treated by their Serer masters if that is they were even welcomed and allowed to stay. If a Moor dies in a village or principality for instance, his body was dragged out of the village and left for the vultures to feast on if there is no family or friend to claim the body and bury it elsewhere and not in the Serer Kingdoms. They were also never accompanied by grave goods. Further, no matter how long a Mauritanian Moor has lived in the area as a migrant, he could never achieve high status within the Serer aristocracy. The best position he could ever wish for within Serer high society was to work as a Bissit (Bissik). Apart from spying for the Serer Kings, the Bissit's main job was to be a clown - for the sole entertainment of the Serer King, the Serer aristocracy and the common people. He was expected to dance in ceremonies before the king and liven up the king's mood and the king's subjects. This position was always given to the Moors and that was the highest position they could wish for. It was a humiliating job and not a title of honour. The purpose of this position was solely created to humiliate the Moors whom the Serers at that time (even now to some degree) view as dishonourable and shameful. The history of this position in the Serer Kingdoms goes back to an early Moor in the area who had a son by his own daughter. This is why that position was especially given to any Moor that wishes to fill the vacant position. The Serer people’s unwillingness to trade (in mass numbers) directly during the colonial era was a double edged sword to the Serer language. That resulted in the Wolof language being the dominant language in the market place as well as the factories. As such, the Wolof language became dominant after the colonials left. However, the Serer language among with other local languages are now part of the national curriculum of Senegal.

Joking relationship (Kal)

Serers and Toucouleurs are linked by a bond of "cousinage". This is a tradition common to many ethnic groups of West Africa called a "Relation du jeste" (Joking relationship) (known as 'Kal' in Serer), which comes from the old Serer word kalcular - meaning paternal lineage (a deformation of the Serer word Kucarla). This joking relationship enables one group to criticise another, but also obliges the other with mutual aid and respect. The Serers call this "Kal". This is because the Serers are the ancestors of the Toucouleurs. The Serers also maintain the same bond with the Jola people with whom they have an ancient relationship.In the Serer ethnic group, this same bond exists between the Serer patronym, for example between Joof and Faye.

All Senegambian people also refer to this joking relations as "Kal" (used between first cousins for example between the children of a paternal aunt and a maternal uncle) and "Gamo" (used between tribes). Again, these words are borrowed from the old Serer language. The word "Gamo" derives from the old Serer word "Gamohu" or "Gamohou" (an ancient divination ceremony)

Serer patronyms

Some of the common Serer surnames
Joof or Diouf Faye Ngom or Ngum Sene or Sène also Sain Dione or Jon Tine Loum Ndaw or Ndao Diene or Jein Thiaw Senghor Ndour or Ndur Ndione Sarr Kama Dièye or Jaye... are all typically of the Serer ethnic group.

Religion

Main article: Serer religion

The symbole of the Ndut Initiation

Practitioners of the Serer religion believe in a universal Supreme Deity called Rog also spelt Roog and sometimes referred to as Rog Sene (Rog the Immensity). They have an elaborate religious tradition dealing with various dimensions of life, death, space and time, ancestral spirit communications and cosmology. Until the colonial period, the Serer people resisted both Islamization and Wolofization. They saw Islamization as an aspect of Wolofization. However, some note that many Serers still follow their traditional religious beliefs.

Sport

Senegalese wrestling match at the stade Demba Diop in Dakar. Serer tradition

Serer wrestling tradition. Rituals and regalia based on Serer tradition. It is now getting too commercialised. See Senegalese wrestling to learn more

The sport played by the Serer is the wrestling called "Laamb". In ancient times, this was not merely a sport, but a preparation for war. The "battle wrestling" and the "sport wrestling" of today are totally different. However if one looks closely at the ritual dances of pre-wrestling Serer sport, one will see elements of battle. The Serers have a long history of being renowned warriors. Wrestling, the preparatory exercises for war, therefore holds great significance among the Serers. The "Laamb" is now a cultural pass time for all Senegambian people crossing religion and ethic boundaries.

See also

Related ethnic groups and dialect

• Serer-Sine
• Serer-Ndut
• Serer-Noon
• Serer-Safene
• Serer-Laalaa
• Serer-Niominka

Other ethnic groups

• Ethnic groups in Senegal
• List of African ethnic groups

Serer kingdoms

• Kingdom of Sine
• Kingdom of Saloum
• Kingdom of Baol
• Biffeche

Senegal

• Demographics of Senegal

• List of Presidents of Senegal

Royalty

• Lamane
• Ama Gôdô Maat - (the 11th century Serer king who killed the Almoravid leader Abu-Bakr Ibn-Umar)
• Maat Sine Kumba Ndoffene Famak Joof - (King of Sine 1853 - 1871)
• Coronation of Kumba Ndoffene Famak Joof

Filmography

• Template:Fr "Molaan" - A documentary film by Moussa Sene Absa, audiovisual ORSTOM, Bondy, 1994, 25 '(VHS)
• Template:Fr "Le Mbissa" - A documentary film by Alexis Fifis and Cécile Walter, produced by the IRD [2]

Bibliography

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• Andrew Burke and David Else, The Gambia & Senegal, 2nd edition - September 2002. Published by Lonely Planet Publications Pty Ltd, page 13
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• Samba Diop, The Wolof Epic: From Spoken Word to Written Text. "The Epic of Ndiadiane Ndiaye"
• Two studies on ethnic group relations in Africa - Senegal, The United Republic of Tanzania. Pages 14–15. UNESCO. 1974
• Dennis Charles Galvan, The State Must Be Our Master of Fire: How Peasants Craft Culturally Sustainable Development in Senegal. Berkeley, University of California Press, 2004
• Martin A. Klein, Islam and Imperialism in Senegal Sine-Saloum, 1847–1914, Edinburgh At the University Press (1968)
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• Portions of this article were translated from the French language Wikipedia article fr:Sérères, 2008-07-08 and August 2011.
• Patience Sonko Godwin. Leaders of Senegambia Region, Reactions To European Infiltration 19th-20th Century. Sunrise Publishers Ltd - The Gambia (1995) ISBN 9983860023
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• Samba Diop. The Wolof Epic: From Spoken Word to Written Text. "The Epic of Ndiadiane Ndiaye"
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External links

External Links

• Moving from Teaching African Customary Laws to Teaching African Indigenous Law. By Dr Fatou. K. Camara [PDF]
• Ethnolyrical. Tassou: The Ancient Spoken Word of African Women