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==History==
==History==
[[Image:Exmoorcliffs.jpg|thumb|left|The Exmoor Coastline]]
[[Image:Exmoorcliffs.jpg|thumb|left|The Exmoor Coastline]]
There is evidence of occupation of the area by people from [[Mesolithic]] times onwards. In the Neolithic period people started to manage animals and growing crops on farms cleared from the woodland, rather than act purely as hunter gatherers.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Fyfe |first=R.M. |authorlink= |coauthors=A. G. Brown and S. J. Rippon |year=2003 |month= |title=Mid- to late-Holocene vegetation history of Greater Exmoor, UK: estimating the spatial extent of human-induced vegetation change |journal=Vegetation History and Archaeobotany |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=215-232 |id=DOI 10.1007/s00334-003-0018-3 |url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/p1jl55y2r5fkn4gr/ |accessdate= 2007-11-29 |quote= }}</ref> It is also likely that extraction and smelting of mineral ores to make tools, weapons, containers and ornaments in bronze and then iron started in the late late neolithic and into the [[Bronze age|bronze]] and [[iron age]]s.<ref name="natparkhist"/> An earthen ring at [[Parracombe]] is believed to be a Neolithic henge dating from 5000-4000BCE, and "Cow Castle" which is where White Water meets the River Barle is an Iron Age fort at the top of a conical hill.<ref name="ancient">{{cite web |url=http://www.holidayexmoor.co.uk/exmoor-history.htm |title=Ancient Exmoor |accessdate=2007-11-29 |format= |work=Holiday Exmoor }}</ref> [[Tarr Steps]] are a [[prehistoric]] [[clapper bridge]], dating to around 1000&nbsp;BC, across the [[River Barle]] located about 2.5&nbsp;miles (4&nbsp;km) south east of [[Withypool]] and {{convert|4|mi|km|0}} north west of [[Dulverton]]. The stone slabs weigh up to 5&nbsp;tons apiece and it has been designated by [[English Heritage]] as a grade I [[listed building]].<ref>{{cite web | title= Tarr Steps | work=Images of England | url=http://www.imagesofengland.org.uk/search/details.aspx?id=429207 | accessdate=2007-05-09}}</ref>
There is evidence of occupation of the area by people from [[Mesolithic]] times onwards. In the Neolithic period people started to manage animals and growing crops on farms cleared from the woodland, rather than act purely as hunter gatherers.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Fyfe |first=R.M. |authorlink= |coauthors=A. G. Brown and S. J. Rippon |year=2003 |month= |title=Mid- to late-Holocene vegetation history of Greater Exmoor, UK: estimating the spatial extent of human-induced vegetation change |journal=Vegetation History and Archaeobotany |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=215-232 |id=DOI 10.1007/s00334-003-0018-3 |url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/p1jl55y2r5fkn4gr/ |accessdate= 2007-11-29 |quote= }}</ref> It is also likely that extraction and smelting of mineral ores to make tools, weapons, containers and ornaments in bronze and then iron started in the late late neolithic and into the [[Bronze age|bronze]] and [[iron age]]s.<ref name="natparkhist"/> An earthen ring at [[Parracombe]] is believed to be a Neolithic henge dating from 5000-4000 [[Anno Domini|BC]], and "Cow Castle" which is where White Water meets the River Barle is an Iron Age fort at the top of a conical hill.<ref name="ancient">{{cite web |url=http://www.holidayexmoor.co.uk/exmoor-history.htm |title=Ancient Exmoor |accessdate=2007-11-29 |format= |work=Holiday Exmoor }}</ref> [[Tarr Steps]] are a [[prehistoric]] [[clapper bridge]], dating to around 1000&nbsp;BC, across the [[River Barle]] located about 2.5&nbsp;miles (4&nbsp;km) south east of [[Withypool]] and {{convert|4|mi|km|0}} north west of [[Dulverton]]. The stone slabs weigh up to 5&nbsp;tons apiece and it has been designated by [[English Heritage]] as a grade I [[listed building]].<ref>{{cite web | title= Tarr Steps | work=Images of England | url=http://www.imagesofengland.org.uk/search/details.aspx?id=429207 | accessdate=2007-05-09}}</ref>


There is little evidence of Roman occupation apart from two fortlets on the coast.<ref name="natparkhist">{{cite web |url=http://www.exmoor-nationalpark.gov.uk/the_history_of_exmoor |title=The history of Exmoor |accessdate=2007-11-29 |format= |work=Exmoor National Park }}</ref>
There is little evidence of Roman occupation apart from two fortlets on the coast.<ref name="natparkhist">{{cite web |url=http://www.exmoor-nationalpark.gov.uk/the_history_of_exmoor |title=The history of Exmoor |accessdate=2007-11-29 |format= |work=Exmoor National Park }}</ref>

Revision as of 08:30, 8 December 2007

Template:Geobox Protected Area

Exmoor National Park is a national park situated on the Bristol Channel coast of South West England. 71% of the National Park is located within the county of Somerset and the remaining 29% is in Devon. The park, which includes the Brendon Hills and the Vale of Porlock as well as Exmoor itself, covers 267 square miles (692 km2) of hilly open moorland and 34 miles (55 km) of coast. It is primarily an upland area with a dispersed population living mainly in small villages and hamlets. The three largest settlements are Lynton and Lynmouth, Porlock and Dulverton, which together contain almost 40% of the National Park population.

Prior to being a park, Exmoor was a Royal Forest and hunting ground, which was sold off in 1818. Exmoor was one of the first British National Parks, designated in 1954, under the 1949 National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act,[1] and is named after its main river, the River Exe.

Several areas of the moor have been declared a Site of Special Scientific interest due to the flora and fauna, and in 1993 Exmoor was designated as an Environmentally Sensitive Area.

Geology

Exmoor is an upland of sedimentary rocks classified as grits, sandstones, siltstones and mudstones depending on the particle size. They are largely of Devonian age (to which this area gave its name as it was first studied and described here) to early Carboniferous periods. As this area of Britain was not subject to glaciation, the plateau remains as a remarkably old landform.[2][3] Quartz and iron mineralisation can be detected in outcrops and subsoil.[4]

Uncultivated heath and moorland cover about a quarter of Exmoor landscape. Some moors are covered by a variety of grasses and sedges, while others are dominated by heather. The moors are supported by wet, acid soil above a mixture of rock types including sandstone, slate, shale and limestone, mostly laid in the Devonian period. The highest point on Exmoor is Dunkery Beacon, at 1,704 feet (519 m), which is also the highest point in Somerset. The Chains and surrounding high ground is the source for rivers, which flow through steep wooded valleys called combes.

Coastline

Exmoor has 34 miles (55 km) of coastline including the highest sea cliffs in England reaching a height of 1,350 feet (411 m) at Culbone Hill. However, this is more than a mile from the sea, whereas Great Hangman near Combe Martin is 1,043 feet (318 m) high with a cliff face of 800 feet (244 m).[5] The scenery of rocky headlands, ravines, waterfalls and towering cliffs gained the Exmoor coast recognition as a Heritage Coast in 1991.[6] The Exmoor Coastal Heaths have been recognised as a Site of Special Scientific Interest due to the diversity of species present.[7] This dramatic coastline is an adventure playground for climbers and explorers, with its with huge waterfalls and caves. The cliffs provide one of the longest and most isolated seacliff traverses in the UK.[8]

Exmoor is special for its coastal woodlands, including 10 miles (16 km) of cliff between Porlock and Countisbury where the trees spread right down to the beach in places. The South West Coast Path, at 630 miles (1,014 km) the longest National Trail in England and Wales, starts at Minehead and runs along all of Exmoor's coast. There are small harbours at Lynmouth, Porlock Weir and Combe Martin. Once important for coastal trade, their primary use now is for pleasure sailing and fishing.

Rivers

The East Lyn River

The high ground forms the catchment area for numerous rivers and streams. There are about 300 miles (483 km) of named rivers on Exmoor.[9] The River Exe, from which Exmoor takes its name,[10][11] rises at Exe Head near the village of Simonsbath, near the Bristol Channel coast, but flows more or less directly due south, so that most of its length lies in Devon. It reaches the sea at a substantial ria (estuary) on the south (English Channel) coast of Devon. Historically, its lowest bridging point was at Exeter, though there is now a viaduct for the M5 motorway about 2 miles (3.2 km) km south of the city centre. It has several tributaries which arise on Exmoor. The River Barle runs from northern Exmoor, to join the River Exe at Exebridge, Devon. The river and the Barle Valley are both designated as biological sites of Special Scientific Interest. Another tributary, the River Haddeo, flows from the Wimbleball Lake.

The other rivers arising on Exmoor flow north to the Bristol Channel. These include the River Heddon which runs along the western edges of Exmoor, reaching the North Devon coast at Heddon's Mouth, and the East and West Lyn which meet at Lynmouth. Hoar Oak Water is a moorland tributary of the East Lyn River the confluence being at Watersmeet. The River Horner, which is also known as Horner Water, rises near Luccombe and flows into Porlock Bay near Hurlestone point.

Climate

Horner Woods, Exmoor, in winter

Along with the rest of South West England, the Exmoor has a temperate climate which is generally wetter and milder than the rest of England. The mean annual temperature at Simonsbath is 8.3°C (47°F)[12] and shows a seasonal and a diurnal variation, but due to the modifying effect of the sea the range is less than in most other parts of the UK. January is the coldest month with mean minimum temperatures between 1 °C (34 °F) and 2 °C (36 °F). July and August are the warmest months in the region with mean daily maxima around 21 °C (70 °F). In general, December is the dullest month and June the sunniest. The south west of England has a favoured location with respect to the Azores high pressure when it extends its influence north-eastwards towards the UK, particularly in summer.[13]

Cloud often forms inland, especially near hills, and acts to reduce sunshine amounts. The average annual sunshine is about 1,600 hours. Rainfall tends to be associated with Atlantic depressions or with convection. In summer, convection caused by solar surface heating sometimes forms shower clouds and a large proportion of rainfall falls from showers and thunderstorms at this time of year. The average annual total rainfall is 69.6 inches (1,768 mm),[12] although 7.35 inches (187 mm) fell in the 24-hour period preceding 10 am on the 16 August 1952, which was one of the contributory factors leading to the flooding in Lynmouth.[14] About 8–15 days of snowfall is typical. November to March have the highest mean wind speeds, with June to August having the lightest winds. The predominant wind direction is from the south west.[13]

History

The Exmoor Coastline

There is evidence of occupation of the area by people from Mesolithic times onwards. In the Neolithic period people started to manage animals and growing crops on farms cleared from the woodland, rather than act purely as hunter gatherers.[15] It is also likely that extraction and smelting of mineral ores to make tools, weapons, containers and ornaments in bronze and then iron started in the late late neolithic and into the bronze and iron ages.[16] An earthen ring at Parracombe is believed to be a Neolithic henge dating from 5000-4000 BC, and "Cow Castle" which is where White Water meets the River Barle is an Iron Age fort at the top of a conical hill.[17] Tarr Steps are a prehistoric clapper bridge, dating to around 1000 BC, across the River Barle located about 2.5 miles (4 km) south east of Withypool and 4 miles (6 km) north west of Dulverton. The stone slabs weigh up to 5 tons apiece and it has been designated by English Heritage as a grade I listed building.[18]

There is little evidence of Roman occupation apart from two fortlets on the coast.[16]

Dunster Yarn Market (a covered market for the sale of local cloth, built in 1609) and Dunster Castle, Exmoor

During the Middle Ages, sheep farming for the wool trade came to dominate the economy. The wool was spun into thread on isolated farms and collected by merchants to be woven, fulled, dyed and finished in thriving towns such as Dunster. The land started to be enclosed and from the 17th century onwards larger estates developed, leading to establishment of areas of large regular shaped fields. During this period a Royal Forest and hunting ground, was established administered by the Warden.[16]

Holwell Castle is a Norman motte and bailey castle probably built to guard the junction of the east-west and north-south trade routes.[17]

In the mid-17th century John Boevey was the warden. He built a house at Simonsbath, and for 150 years it was the only house in the forest.[19] The Royal Forest was sold off in 1818. Sir Richard Acland, the last warden of Exmoor, took 30 ponies and established the Anchor herd, which still exists today. The Simonsbath House was bought along with the accompanying farm by John Knight for the sum of £50,000. Knight set about converting the Royal Forest into agricultural land. He and his family built most of the large farms in the central section of the moor, and built 22 miles (35 km) of metalled access roads to Simonsbath. He built a 29-mile (47 km) wall around his estate, much of which still survives.[20]

In the mid-19th century a mine was developed alongside the River Barle. The mine was originally called Wheal Maria, then changed to Wheal Eliza. It was a copper mine from 1845–54 and then an iron mine until 1857, although the first mining activity on the site may be may be from 1552.[21] A restored Victorian water-powered sawmill in the village, which was damaged in the floods of 1992, has now been purchased by the National park and returned to working order, making the footpath signs, gates, stiles, and bridges for various sites in the National Park.[22][23]

Exmoor was one of the first British National Parks, designated in 1954, under the 1949 National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act.[1] It was expanded in 1991 and in 1993 Exmoor was designated as an Environmentally Sensitive Area,[24] and amended in 1995.[25] The resident population is 10,600 people, however the attractions including the 208 scheduled ancient monuments, and 16 conservation areas mean that Exmoor receives 1.4 million visitor days per year.[26]

Ecology

In addition to the Exmoor Coastal Heaths Site of Special Scientific Interest two other areas are specifically designated. North Exmoor covers 29,666 acres (120 km2) and includes the Dunkery Beacon and the Holnicote and Horner Water Nature Conservation Review sites, and the Chains Geological Conservation Review site. The site is nationally important for its south-western lowland heath communities and for transitions from ancient semi-natural woodland through upland heath to blanket mire.[27] The site is also of importance for its breeding bird communities, its large population of the nationally rare Heath Fritillary butterfly (Mellicta athalia),[5] an exceptional woodland lichen flora and its palynological interest of deep peat on the Chains.[27] The South Exmoor is smaller covering 7,741 acres (31 km2) and including the River Barle and its tributaries with submerged plants such as Alternate Watermilfoil (Myriophyllum alterniflorum). There are small areas of semi-natural woodland within the site, including some which are ancient. The most abundant tree species is Sessile Oak (Quercus petraea), the shrub layer is very sparse and the ground flora includes Bracken, Bilberry and a variety of mosses. The heaths have strong breeding populations of Whinchat (Saxicola rubetra) and Stonechat (Saxicola torquata). Wheatear (Oenanthe oenanthe) are common near stone boundary walls and other stony places. Grasshopper Warbler (Locustella naevia) breed in scrub and tall heath. Trees on the moorland edges provide nesting sites for Redpoll (Acanthis flammea), buzzard (Buteo buteo) and Raven (Corvus corax).[28]

Flora

Dunkery Beacon, with heather in bloom

Although Exmoor is usually associated with moorland, there are also cultivated areas including the Brendon Hills, which lie in the east of the national park. There are also 32.4 square miles (84 km2) of woodland,[29] comprising a mixture of broad-leaved (oak, ash and hazel) and conifer trees. Horner Woodlands and Tarr Steps woodlands are prime examples. The country's highest beech wood, 1,200 feet (366 m) above sea level, is at Birch Cleave at Simonsbath. At least two species of whitebeam tree: Sorbus subcuneata and Sorbus 'Taxon D' are unique to Exmoor.[5] These woodlands are home to lichens, mosses and ferns. Exmoor is the only national location for the lichens Biatoridium delitescens, Rinodina fimbriata and Rinodina flavosoralifera, the latter having been found only on one individual tree.[5]

Fauna

A herd of Exmoor pony foals.

Sheep have grazed on the moors for more than 3,000 years, shaping much of the Exmoor landscape by feeding on moorland grasses and heather. Traditional breeds include Exmoor Horn, Cheviot and Whiteface Dartmoor and Greyface Dartmoor sheep. Devon ruby red cattle are also farmed in the area. Exmoor ponies can be seen roaming freely on the moors. They are a landrace rather than a breed of pony, and may be the closest breed remaining in Europe to wild horses. The ponies are rounded up once a year to be marked and checked over. In 1818 Sir Richard Acland, the last warden of Exmoor, took thirty ponies and established the Anchor herd, which still exists today.[30] In World War II the moor became a training ground, and the breed was nearly killed off, with only 50 ponies surviving the war.[31] The ponies are classified as 'endangered' by the Rare Breeds Survival Trust with only 390 breeding females left in the UK. In 2006 a Rural Enterprise Grant, administered locally by the South West Rural Development Service, was obtained to create a new Exmoor Pony Centre at Ashwick, at a disused farm with 17 acres (7 ha) of land with a further 138 acres (56 ha) of moorland.[32]

Red deer have a stronghold on the moor and can be seen on quiet hillsides in remote areas, particularly in the early morning.

The moorland habitat is also home to hundreds of species of birds and insects. Birds seen on the moor include Merlin, Peregrine Falcon, Eurasian Curlew, European Stonechat, Dipper, Dartford Warbler and Ring Ouzel. Black Grouse and Red Grouse are now extinct on Exmoor.[33]

Beast of Exmoor

The Beast of Exmoor is reputed to haunt the moor, with many sightings since the 1960s. It is possibly a Cougar or Black Leopard which was released sometime in the 1960s or 1970s after a law passed making it illegal for them to be kept in captivity outside zoos.[34] It has been blamed for many sheep kills over the years.[35]

Government and politics

The National Park, 71% of which is in Somerset and 29% in Devon,[36] was designated in 1954, under the 1949 National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act,[1] The largest landowner is the National Trust, which owns over 10% and the National Park Authority, owns about 7%. Other areas are owned by the Forestry Commission, Crown Estate and Water Companies. The largest private landowner is the Badgworthy Land Company, which represents hunting interests.[37]

From 1954 local government was the responsibility of the county councils and, since 1997, by the Exmoor National Park Authority, however responsibility for the social and economic well-being of the local community remains with the district and county councils. The park authority is known as a ‘single purpose’ authority and aims to "conserve and enhance the natural beauty, wildlife and cultural heritage of the National Parks" and "promote opportunities for the understanding and enjoyment of the special qualities of the Parks by the public",[38] including responsibility for the conservation of the historic environment.[39]

The Park Authority receives 80% of its funding as a direct grant from the Government. The Park Authority Committee consists of members from parish and county councils, and 6 appointed by the Secretary of state. The work is carried out by rangers, volunteers and a team of 13 estate workers who carry out a wide range of tasks including maintaining the many miles of rights of way, hedge-laying, fencing, swaling, walling, invasive weed control and habitat management on National Park Authority land. [38]

There have been ongoing debates between the biological monitoring of SSSIs which shows the need for a controlled regime of grazing and burning, and farmers are saying that these regimes are not practical or effective in the long term.[40]

Sport

Although the hunting of animals with dogs was abolished by the Hunting Act 2004, the Exmoor hunts still meet in full regalia and there is a campaign to resurrect this rural sport.[41][42][43]

For others walking, climbing, and the scenery are the attractions.

The Coleridge Way is a 36-mile (58 km) footpath which follows the walks taken by poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge, to Porlock, starting from Coleridge Cottage at Nether Stowey, where he once lived. It starts in the Quantocks before moving onto the Brendon Hills and crosses the fringes of Exmoor National Park at Dunkery Hill. The Two Moors Way runs from Ivybridge in South Devon to Lynmouth on the coast of North Devon, crossing parts of both Dartmoor and Exmoor.[44]

Places of interest

Cultural references

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c "Exmoor National Park Authority". Everything Exmoor. Retrieved 2007-10-16.
  2. ^ "Geology". Exmoor National Park. Retrieved 2007-11-28.
  3. ^ "Exmoor and the Quantocks". Natural England. Retrieved 2007-11-28.
  4. ^ "Somerset Geology". Good Rock Guide. Retrieved 2007-11-28.
  5. ^ a b c d "Moor Facts". Exmoor National Park. Retrieved 2007-11-28.
  6. ^ "Flying High". BBC. Retrieved 2007-12-03.
  7. ^ "Exmoor Coastal Heaths" (PDF). English Nature. Retrieved 2006-08-12.
  8. ^ "The Exmoor Coast Traverse". Exmoor Walker. Retrieved 2007-11-28.
  9. ^ "Water on Exmoor - Filex 7" (PDF). Exmoor National Park. Retrieved 2007-12-03.
  10. ^ "Countryside". Vsit Exmoor. Retrieved 2007-12-07.
  11. ^ "Exmoor National Park". Equine Tourism. Retrieved 2007-12-07.
  12. ^ a b "The Exe Catchment, Devon, 2004" (PDF). Exe estuary management partnership. Retrieved 2007-11-28.
  13. ^ a b "About south-west England". Met Office. Retrieved 2006-05-21.
  14. ^ "Hydraulics Engineering Division Meeting" (PDF). The Institution of Civil Engineers Proceedings, Part 111, December 1953. Retrieved 2007-11-28.
  15. ^ Fyfe, R.M. (2003). "Mid- to late-Holocene vegetation history of Greater Exmoor, UK: estimating the spatial extent of human-induced vegetation change". Vegetation History and Archaeobotany. 12 (4): 215–232. DOI 10.1007/s00334-003-0018-3. Retrieved 2007-11-29. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  16. ^ a b c "The history of Exmoor". Exmoor National Park. Retrieved 2007-11-29.
  17. ^ a b "Ancient Exmoor". Holiday Exmoor. Retrieved 2007-11-29.
  18. ^ "Tarr Steps". Images of England. Retrieved 2007-05-09.
  19. ^ "Simonsbath House Hotel". Images of England. Retrieved 2007-11-27.
  20. ^ "Simonsbath". Whatsonexmoor. Retrieved 2007-11-27.
  21. ^ "Wheal Eliza mine, NE of Simonsbath, Exmoor". Somerset Historic Environment Record. Retrieved 2007-11-27.
  22. ^ "Guided Tours of Simonsbath Sawmill". Exmoor National Park. Retrieved 2007-11-27.
  23. ^ "Exmoor National Park: Simonsbath sawmill" (PDF). A Landscape Legacy: National Parks and the historic environment: English Heritage. Retrieved 2007-11-28.
  24. ^ "The Environmentally Sensitive Areas (Exmoor) Designation Order 1993". HMSO. Retrieved 2007-12-03.
  25. ^ "The Environmentally Sensitive Areas (Exmoor) Designation (Amendment) (No. 2) Order 1995". HMSO. Retrieved 2007-12-03.
  26. ^ "National Park Facts and Figures". National Parks. Retrieved 2007-12-05.
  27. ^ a b "North Exmoor" (PDF). English Nature. Retrieved 2006-08-19.
  28. ^ "South Exmoor" (PDF). English Nature. Retrieved 2006-08-20.
  29. ^ "Landscape of Exmoor National Park". Everything Exmoor. Retrieved 2007-12-03.
  30. ^ "History of the Exmoor Pony". Exmoor Pony Centre. Retrieved 2007-12-03.
  31. ^ "Exmoor Ponies- a dying breed?". BBC Somerset. Retrieved 2007-12-03.
  32. ^ "New pony centre to support preservation of Exmoor ponies". Department for Environment, Food And Rural Affairs (South West). Retrieved 2007-11-29.
  33. ^ "Good and bad news on Exmoor's birds". BBC. Retrieved 2007-12-03.
  34. ^ Beer, Trevor (1986). The beast of Exmoor: Fact or legend?. Countryside Productions. ISBN 0951577506. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  35. ^ "The Beast of Exmoor". Everything Exmoor. Retrieved 2007-12-07.
  36. ^ "Somerset & Exmoor National Park Joint Structure Plan Review. 2000". Somerset County Council. Retrieved 2007-11-29.
  37. ^ "Geography of Exmoor - Filex 4" (PDF). Exmoor National Park. Retrieved 2007-12-03.
  38. ^ a b "The Authority". Exmoor National Park. Retrieved 2007-11-29.
  39. ^ "Exmoor National Park NMP". English Heritage. Retrieved 2007-11-29.
  40. ^ "Moorlands at a Crossroads: The State of the Moorlands of Exmoor, 2004" (PDF). The Exmoor Society. Retrieved 2007-11-29.
  41. ^ "Exmoor huntsman case delayed". Horse and Hound. Retrieved 2007-12-07.
  42. ^ "Hunting ban left in tatters". This is Somerset. Retrieved 2007-12-07.
  43. ^ O'Rourke, PJ (2007-08-17). "Goodwill Hunting". The Guardian. Retrieved 2007-12-07. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  44. ^ "The Coleridge Way". The Coleridge Way. Retrieved 2007-12-03.

Further reading

51°06′24″N 3°36′41″W / 51.10667°N 3.61139°W / 51.10667; -3.61139

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