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'''Language''' is a finite system of arbitrary [[symbol]]s combined according to rules of [[grammar]] for the purpose of [[communication]]. Individual languages use [[sound]]s, [[gesture]]s, and other symbols to represent objects, [[concept]]s, [[emotion]]s, [[idea]]s, and [[thought]]s.
There is ''language,'' and there are particular ''languages.''
In the most general sense suggested by classical works like the [[Oxford English Dictionary]] and the [[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica]], '''language''' is simply the faculty, or the totality of methods, of [[expression]] and [[communication]];
The methods of expression and communication used by a particular [[community]] constitute '''a language.'''

==Definitions and characteristics of language==

The word "language" descends from the Latin ''lingua'' "tongue."
[[Etymology|Etymologically]] then, language involves the use of [[voice]], in [[speech]].
However, languages may also use [[writing]]; or they may use [[gesture]], as in [[American Sign Language]].

Communication as such is the province of [[semiotics]] and [[communication studies]], whereas [[linguistics]] concerns language in a more restricted sense.
By one linguistic account (Widdowson, 1996), language can be distinguished from other forms of communication by its ''arbitrariness'' and ''duality'':
*Language as such uses [[sign (linguistics)|signs]] (such as [[word|words]]) that have no necessary connexion with what they represent.
*The signs just mentioned are combinations of elements (such as [[phoneme|phonemes]] or [[grapheme|letters]]) that, by themselves, have no meaning at all.

In one linguistic definition (by [[Leonard Bloomfield]], quoted by Chomsky, 2001), language is <blockquote>
the totality of utterances that can be made in a speech community.
</blockquote>

In a more elaborate account (Lewis, 2001), a language is a certain [[function (mathematics)|function]], namely a set of [[ordered pair|ordered pairs]] <math>(s,m)</math>, where <math>s</math> is a [[sentence (linguistics)|sentence]] of the language, and <math>m</math> is its [[meaning]]:
This meaning is the set of [[Possible world|possible worlds]] in which the sentence is ''true.''

By contrast, for [[Noam Chomsky]] (2001), language is a system in the mind or brain that assesses many physical events (and not just the utterances of one's own "speech community"; language will judge so-called "ungrammatical" sentences, sentences of "foreign" languages, and perhaps other sounds and marks). A [[grammar]] is then the theory of such a mental system; then [[universal grammar]] is then the study of the principles that can specify a language.

Working in another direction, and earlier, the philosopher [[R.G. Collingwood]] (1938) proposes:
<blockquote>
Bodily actions expressing certain emotions, in so far as they come under our control and are conceived by us, in our awareness of controlling them, as our way of expressing these emotions, are language&hellip;The grammatical and logical articulations of intellectualized language are no more fundamental to language as such than the articulations of bone and limb are fundamental to living tissue.
Beneath all the elaboration of specialized organisms lies the primitive life of the cell; beneath all the machinery of word and sentence lies the primitive language of mere utterance, the controlled act in which we express our emotions.
</blockquote>



==The study of language==
==The study of language==
{{main|Linguistics}}
{{main|Linguistics}}
⚫
The [[Tolkāppiyam]] (தொல்காப்பியம் in Tamil), a book on the grammar of the [[Tamil language]], written around [[200 BC|200 BCE]] by Tolkāppiyar, is said to be the world's oldest surviving grammar for any language. The classification of the alphabet into [[consonant]]s and [[vowel]]s by splitting the conso-vowels was a scientific breakthrough. Grammatising this phenomenon was also an achievement of that time. The Tolkāppiyar starts by defining the alphabet for optimal writing, grammatises the use of words and syntaxes and moves into higher modes of language analysis. The study of language began in [[North India]] with [[Pāṇini]], the ancient grammarian (approximately [[5th century BCE]]) who formulated 3,959 rules of [[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]] [[morphology]] known as the {{IPA|[[Aṣṭādhyāyī]]}} (अष्टाध्यायी). {{IPA|Pāṇini's}} grammar of [[Sanskrit]] is highly systematized and technical. Inherent in its analytic approach are the concepts of the [[phoneme]], the [[morpheme]] and the [[Root (linguistics)|root]], only recognized by Western linguists some two millennia later. In the [[Middle East]], the [[Persian language|Persian]] linguist [[Sibawayh]] made a detailed and professional description of [[Arabic language|Arabic]] in [[760]] CE in his monumental work, ''[[Al-kitab fi an-nahw]]'' (الكتاب في النحو, ''The Book on Grammar''), bringing many [[Linguistics|linguistic]] aspects of language to light. In his [[book]] he developed a distinct [[Phonetics|phonetic]] and [[Phonology|phonological]] theory.

⚫
The [[Tolkāppiyam]] (தொல்காப்பியம் in Tamil), a book on the grammar of the [[Tamil language]], written around [[200 BC|200 BCE]] by Tolkāppiyar, is said to be the world's oldest surviving grammar for any language. The classification of the alphabet into consonants and [[vowel]]s by splitting the conso-vowels was a scientific breakthrough. Grammatising this phenomenon was also an achievement of that time. The Tolkāppiyar starts by defining the alphabet for optimal writing, grammatises the use of words and syntaxes and moves into higher modes of language analysis. The study of language began in [[North India]] with [[Pāṇini]], the ancient grammarian (approximately [[5th century BCE]]) who formulated 3,959 rules of [[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]] [[morphology]] known as the {{IPA|[[Aṣṭādhyāyī]]}} (अष्टाध्यायी). {{IPA|Pāṇini's}} grammar of [[Sanskrit]] is highly systematized and technical. Inherent in its analytic approach are the concepts of the [[phoneme]], the [[morpheme]] and the [[Root (linguistics)|root]], only recognized by Western linguists some two millennia later. In the [[Middle East]], the [[Persian language|Persian]] linguist [[Sibawayh]] made a detailed and professional description of [[Arabic language|Arabic]] in [[760]] CE in his monumental work, [[al-kitab fi an-nahw]] (الكتاب في النحو, ''The Book on Grammar''), bringing many [[linguistic]] [[aspect]]s of language to light. In his [[book]] he developed a distinct [[phonetics|phonetic]] and [[phonological]] theory.


Later in the West, the success of [[science]], [[mathematics]], and other [[formal system]]s in the [[20th century]] led many to attempt a formalization of the study of language as a "semantic code". This resulted in the [[academic discipline]] of [[linguistics]], the founding of which is attributed to [[Ferdinand de Saussure]].
Later in the West, the success of [[science]], [[mathematics]], and other [[formal system]]s in the [[20th century]] led many to attempt a formalization of the study of language as a "semantic code". This resulted in the [[academic discipline]] of [[linguistics]], the founding of which is attributed to [[Ferdinand de Saussure]].
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===Origins of human language===
===Origins of human language===
{{main|Origins of language}}
{{main|Origins of language}}

Scientists do not yet agree on when language was first used by humans (or their ancestors). Estimates range from about two million years ago, during the time of ''[[Homo habilis]]'', to as recently as forty thousand years ago, during the time of [[Cro-Magnon]] man. The nature of speech means that there is almost no data on which to base conclusions on the subject.
Scientists do not yet agree on when language was first used by humans (or their ancestors). Estimates range from about two million years ago, during the time of ''[[Homo habilis]]'', to as recently as forty thousand years ago, during the time of [[Cro-Magnon]] man. The nature of speech means that there is almost no data on which to base conclusions on the subject.


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== References ==
== References ==

*{{Chapter reference | Author=Chomsky, Noam | Title=Language and Problems of Knowledge | Pages=pp. 581&ndash;599 | Book=The Philosophy of Language | Editor=A.P. Martinich | Year=2001 | Publisher=Oxford University Press | ID=ISBN 0-19-513543-1}}
*{{Book reference | Author=Collingwood, R.G. | Title=The Principles of Art | Publisher=Oxford | Year=1938 | ID=ISBN unknown}}
*Crystal, David (1997). ''The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language.'' Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
*Crystal, David (1997). ''The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language.'' Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
*Crystal, David (2001). ''The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language.'' Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
*Crystal, David (2001). ''The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language.'' Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
⚫
*Kandel, Jessel, and Schwartz (1991). ''Principles of Neural Science.'' McGraw Hill (esp. p. 1173).
*Katzner, K. (1999). ''The Languages of the World.'' New York, Routledge.
*Katzner, K. (1999). ''The Languages of the World.'' New York, Routledge.
*{{Chapter reference | Author=Lewis, David | Title=Languages and Language | Year=2001 | Editor=A.P. Martinich | Book=The Philosophy of Language | Pages=pp. 562&ndash;580 | Publisher=Oxford University Press | ID=ISBN 0-19-513543-1}}
*McArthur, T. (1996). ''The Concise Companion to the English Language.'' Oxford, Oxford University Press.
*McArthur, T. (1996). ''The Concise Companion to the English Language.'' Oxford, Oxford University Press.
⚫
*Kandel, Jessel, and Schwartz (1991). ''Principles of Neural Science.'' McGraw Hill (esp. p. 1173).
*{{Book reference | Author=Widderson, H.G. | Title=Linguistics | Publisher=Oxford University Press | Year=1996 | ID=ISBN 0-19-437206-5}}

==External links==
==External links==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|Language.ogg|2005-07-19}}
{{Spoken Wikipedia|Language.ogg|2005-07-19}}
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[[ca:Llengua (comunicació)]]
[[ca:Llengua (comunicació)]]
[[cs:Jazyk]]
[[cs:Jazyk]]
[[cv:Чěлхе]]
[[cy:Iaith]]
[[cy:Iaith]]
[[da:Sprog]]
[[da:Sprog]]

Revision as of 18:09, 14 September 2005

Language is a finite system of arbitrary symbols combined according to rules of grammar for the purpose of communication. Individual languages use sounds, gestures, and other symbols to represent objects, concepts, emotions, ideas, and thoughts.

The study of language

Main article: Linguistics

The Tolkāppiyam (தொல்காப்பியம் in Tamil), a book on the grammar of the Tamil language, written around 200 BCE by Tolkāppiyar, is said to be the world's oldest surviving grammar for any language. The classification of the alphabet into consonants and vowels by splitting the conso-vowels was a scientific breakthrough. Grammatising this phenomenon was also an achievement of that time. The Tolkāppiyar starts by defining the alphabet for optimal writing, grammatises the use of words and syntaxes and moves into higher modes of language analysis. The study of language began in North India with Pāṇini, the ancient grammarian (approximately 5th century BCE) who formulated 3,959 rules of Sanskrit morphology known as the Aṣṭādhyāyī (अष्टाध्यायी). Pāṇini's grammar of Sanskrit is highly systematized and technical. Inherent in its analytic approach are the concepts of the phoneme, the morpheme and the root, only recognized by Western linguists some two millennia later. In the Middle East, the Persian linguist Sibawayh made a detailed and professional description of Arabic in 760 CE in his monumental work, Al-kitab fi an-nahw (الكتاب في النحو, The Book on Grammar), bringing many linguistic aspects of language to light. In his book he developed a distinct phonetic and phonological theory.

Later in the West, the success of science, mathematics, and other formal systems in the 20th century led many to attempt a formalization of the study of language as a "semantic code". This resulted in the academic discipline of linguistics, the founding of which is attributed to Ferdinand de Saussure.


Human languages

Making a principled distinction between one language and another is usually impossible. For example, the boundaries between named language groups are in effect arbitrary due to blending between populations (the dialect continuum). For instance, there are dialects of German very similar to Dutch which are not mutually intelligible with other dialects of (what Germans call) German.

Some like to make parallels with biology, where it is not always possible to make a well-defined distinction between one species and the next. In either case, the ultimate difficulty may stem from the interactions between languages and populations. (See Dialect or August Schleicher for a longer discussion.)

The concepts of Ausbausprache, Abstandsprache, and Dachsprache are used to make finer distinctions about the degrees of difference between languages or dialects.

Origins of human language

Main article: Origins of language

Scientists do not yet agree on when language was first used by humans (or their ancestors). Estimates range from about two million years ago, during the time of Homo habilis, to as recently as forty thousand years ago, during the time of Cro-Magnon man. The nature of speech means that there is almost no data on which to base conclusions on the subject.

Language taxonomy

Main article: Language families and languages

The world’s languages have been grouped into families of languages that have similarities. Some of the major groupings are the Indo-European languages, the Afro-Asiatic languages, and the Sino-Tibetan languages.

Constructed languages

Main article: Constructed language

One prominent artificial language, called Esperanto, was created by L. L. Zamenhof. It was a compilation of various elements of different languages, and it was intended to be an easy-to-learn language. Other constructed languages strive to be more logical than natural languages; a prominent example of this is Lojban.

Other writers, such as J. R. R. Tolkien, have created fantasy languages, for literary, linguistic, or personal reasons. One of Tolkien's languages is called Quenya, which is a form of Elvish. It includes its own alphabet and its phonology and syntax are modelled on Finnish. Linguist Mark Okrand has devised Klingon and Vulcan for Star Trek, which have since been developed into full languages.

Animal (nonhuman) language

Main article: Animal language

While the term animal languages is widely used, most researchers agree that they are not as complex or expressive as human language; a more accurate term is animal communication. Some researchers argue that there are significant differences separating human language from the communication of other animals, and that the underlying principles are not related.

In several widely publicised instances, animals have been trained to mimic certain features of human language. For example, chimpanzees and gorillas have been taught hand signs based on American Sign Language; however, they have never been taught its grammar. There are some researchers who have demonstrated that it is possible to train chimpanzees to form grammatical productions. While animal communication has semantics, its syntax is much simpler than that of most human languages.

Some researchers argue that a continuum exists among the communication methods of all social animals, pointing to the fundamental requirements of group behaviour and the existence of "mirror cells" in primates. This, however, may not be a scientific question, but is perhaps more one of definition. What exactly is the definition of the word "language"? Most researchers agree that, although human and more primitive languages have analogous features, they are not homologous.

Formal languages

Main article: Formal language

Mathematics and computer science use artificial entities called formal languages (including programming languages and markup languages, but also some that are far more theoretical in nature). These often take the form of character strings, produced by some combination of formal grammar and semantics of arbitrary complexity.

See also

References

  • Crystal, David (1997). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
  • Crystal, David (2001). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
  • Katzner, K. (1999). The Languages of the World. New York, Routledge.
  • McArthur, T. (1996). The Concise Companion to the English Language. Oxford, Oxford University Press.
  • Kandel, Jessel, and Schwartz (1991). Principles of Neural Science. McGraw Hill (esp. p. 1173).
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