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<!-- Image with inadequate rationale removed: [[Image:Magadan, 09.06 019.jpg|220px|right|thumb|
<!-- Image with inadequate rationale removed: [[Image:Magadan, 09.06 019.jpg|220px|right|thumb|
''Mask of Sorrow'' monument in the Russian Far Eastern city of [[Magadan]], in memory of the [[Gulag]] prisoners that died in the [[Dalstroi]] [[labor camps]]]] -->
''Mask of Sorrow'' monument in the Russian Far Eastern city of [[Magadan]], in memory of the [[Gulag]] prisoners that died in the [[Dalstroi]] [[labor camps]]]] -->
Throughout different periods of the [[Soviet history]] millions of people fell victims of political repressions{{Fact|date=November 2008}}. Early on the theoretical basis of the repressions was the [[Marxist]] view at the [[class struggle]]{{Fact|date=November 2008}} and the resulting notion of the [[dictatorship of the proletariat]]{{Fact|date=November 2008}}. Its legal basis was formalized into the [[Article 58 (RSFSR Penal Code)|Article 58 ]] in the code of [[RSFSR]] and similar articles for other [[Republics of the Soviet Union|Soviet republic]]s{{Fact|date=November 2008}}.
Throughout different periods of the [[Soviet history]] millions of people fell victims of political repressions. Early on the theoretical basis of the repressions was the [[Marxist]] view at the [[class struggle]] and the resulting notion of the [[dictatorship of the proletariat]]. Its legal basis was formalized into the [[Article 58 (RSFSR Penal Code)|Article 58 ]] in the code of [[RSFSR]] and similar articles for other [[Republics of the Soviet Union|Soviet republic]]s.


The term "[[repression]]", "[[terror]]", and other strong words were normal working terms with respect to the internal politics of the early Soviet state{{Fact|date=November 2008}}, reflecting the fact that the dictatorship of the proletariat was supposed apply ruthless force to suppress the resistance of the [[social class]]es which Marxism considered antagonistic to the class of [[proletariat]]{{Fact|date=November 2008}}. This phraseology was gradually abolished after [[destalinization]]{{Fact|date=November 2008}}, but the system of persecution for political views and activities remained until the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]]{{Fact|date=November 2008}}.
The term "[[repression]]", "[[terror]]", and other strong words were normal working terms with respect to the internal politics of the early Soviet state, reflecting the fact that the dictatorship of the proletariat was supposed apply ruthless force to suppress the resistance of the [[social class]]es which Marxism considered antagonistic to the class of [[proletariat]]. This phraseology was gradually abolished after [[destalinization]], but the system of persecution for political views and activities remained until the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]].


At times, the the victims were called the [[enemies of the people]]{{Fact|date=November 2008}}. Punishments by the state included [[summary execution]]s{{Fact|date=November 2008}}, [[torture]]{{Fact|date=November 2008}}, sending innocent people to [[Gulag]]{{Fact|date=November 2008}}, [[Involuntary settlements in the Soviet Union|involuntary settlement]]{{Fact|date=November 2008}}, and [[Lishenets|stripping of citizen's rights]]{{Fact|date=November 2008}}. Sometimes, all members of a family, including children, were punished as "[[NKVD Order № 00486|traitor of Motherland family members]]"{{Fact|date=November 2008}}. Repression was conducted by the [[Cheka]]{{Fact|date=November 2008}}, [[OGPU]]{{Fact|date=November 2008}} and [[NKVD]]{{Fact|date=November 2008}} in several consecutive waves known as [[Red Terror]]{{Fact|date=November 2008}}, [[Collectivisation in the USSR|Collectivisation]]{{Fact|date=November 2008}}, the [[Great Purge]]s{{Fact|date=November 2008}}, the [[Doctor's Plot]]{{Fact|date=November 2008}}, and others. The [[secret police]] forces conducted [[NKVD prisoner massacres|massacres of prisoners]] on numerous occasions{{Fact|date=November 2008}}. Repression was practiced in the [[Soviet republics]]{{Fact|date=November 2008}} and in the territories liberated by [[Soviet Army]] during [[World War II]], including [[Baltic States]]{{Fact|date=November 2008}} and [[Eastern Europe]]{{Fact|date=November 2008}} <ref>[[Anton Antonov-Ovseenko]] ''[[Beria]]'' (Russian) Moscow, AST, 1999. [http://fictionbook.ru/author/antonov_ovseenko_anton/beriya/antonov_ovseenko_beriya.html Russian text online - consider changing the source, this one looks more a historic novel, than a serious research] </ref>.
At times, the the victims were called the [[enemies of the people]]. Punishments by the state included [[summary execution]]s, [[torture]], sending innocent people to [[Gulag]], [[Involuntary settlements in the Soviet Union|involuntary settlement]], and [[Lishenets|stripping of citizen's rights]]. Sometimes, all members of a family, including children, were punished as "[[NKVD Order № 00486|traitor of Motherland family members]]". Repression was conducted by the [[Cheka]], [[OGPU]] and [[NKVD]] in several consecutive waves known as [[Red Terror]], [[Collectivisation in the USSR|Collectivisation]], the [[Great Purge]]s, the [[Doctor's Plot]], and others. The [[secret police]] forces conducted [[NKVD prisoner massacres|massacres of prisoners]] on numerous occasions. Repression was practiced in the [[Soviet republics]] and in the territories liberated by [[Soviet Army]] during [[World War II]], including [[Baltic States]] and [[Eastern Europe]] <ref>[[Anton Antonov-Ovseenko]] ''[[Beria]]'' (Russian) Moscow, AST, 1999. [http://fictionbook.ru/author/antonov_ovseenko_anton/beriya/antonov_ovseenko_beriya.html Russian text online] </ref>.


State repression led to resistnace{{Fact|date=November 2008}}, which were brutally suppressed by military force{{Fact|date=November 2008}}, such as the [[Tambov rebellion|Tambov peasant rebellion]]{{Fact|date=November 2008}}, [[Kronstadt rebellion]]{{Fact|date=November 2008}}, and [[Vorkuta Uprising]]{{Fact|date=November 2008}}. During the Tambov rebellion, [[Bolshevik]] military forces used [[chemical weapons]] against villages with civilian population and rebels.<ref name="Tambov"> [http://gulag.ipvnews.org/article20061017.php B.V.Sennikov. ''Tambov rebellion and liquidation of peasants in Russia'' - consider changing the source to something with more references], Publisher: Posev, 2004, ISBN 5-85824-152-2 [http://www.rusk.ru/vst.php?idar=321701 Full text in Russian] </ref> Prominent citizens of villages were often taken as [[hostages]] and executed if the resistance fighters did not surrender. <ref>Courtois, Stephane; Werth, Nicolas; Panne, Jean-Louis; Paczkowski, Andrzej; Bartosek, Karel; Margolin, Jean-Louis & Kramer, Mark (1999). ''The [[Black Book of Communism]]: Crimes, Terror, Repression''. [[Harvard University Press]]. ISBN 0-674-07608-7 </ref>
State repression led to resistnace, which were brutally suppressed by military force, such as the [[Tambov rebellion]], [[Kronstadt rebellion]], and [[Vorkuta Uprising]]. During the Tambov rebellion, [[Bolshevik]] military forces used [[chemical weapons]] against villages with civilian population and rebels.<ref name="Tambov"> [http://gulag.ipvnews.org/article20061017.php B.V.Sennikov. ''Tambov rebellion and liquidation of peasants in Russia''], Publisher: Posev, 2004, ISBN 5-85824-152-2 [http://www.rusk.ru/vst.php?idar=321701 Full text in Russian] </ref> Prominent citizens of villages were often taken as [[hostages]] and executed if the resistance fighters did not surrender. <ref>Courtois, Stephane; Werth, Nicolas; Panne, Jean-Louis; Paczkowski, Andrzej; Bartosek, Karel; Margolin, Jean-Louis & Kramer, Mark (1999). ''The [[Black Book of Communism]]: Crimes, Terror, Repression''. [[Harvard University Press]]. ISBN 0-674-07608-7 </ref>


==Loss of life==
==Loss of life==
The exact number of victims may never be known and remains a matter of debate among historians{{Fact|date=November 2008}}. The result depends on the period of time and the criteria and methods used for the estimates. For example, the number of victims under [[Stalinism|Joseph Stalin's regime]] vary from 8 to 61 million <ref name="Ponton">Ponton, G. (1994) ''The Soviet Era.''</ref> <ref name="Tsaplin">Tsaplin, V.V. (1989) ''Statistika zherty naseleniya v 30e gody.'' - the name of the book is in Russian? Then needs spelling correction.</ref> <ref name="NoveStalin">Nove, Alec. ''Victims of Stalinism: How Many?'', in ''Stalinist Terror: New Perspectives'' (edited by [[J. Arch Getty]] and Roberta T. Manning), [[Cambridge University Press]], 1993. ISBN 0-521-44670-8.</ref> <ref name="Black">Bibliography: Courtois et al. The Black Book of Communism </ref> <ref name="Davies">Davies, Norman. ''Europe: A History'', Harper Perennial, 1998. ISBN 0-06-097468-0.</ref> <ref name="RummelStalin">Bibliography: Rummel.</ref>
According to the [[Guiness Book of Records]], 66.7 million people were killed in the Soviet Union by state persecution from October 1917 through 1959 - under Lenin, Stalin, and Khrushev <ref name=Albats">[[Yevgenia Albats]] and Catherine A. Fitzpatrick. ''The State Within a State: The KGB and Its Hold on Russia - Past, Present, and Future''], 1994. ISBN 0-374-18104-7, page 107. </ref>. The exact number of victims may never be known and remains a matter of debate among historians. The result depends on the period of time and the criteria and methods used for the estimates. For example, the number of victims under [[Stalinism|Joseph Stalin's regime]] vary from 8 to 61 million <ref name="Ponton">Ponton, G. (1994) ''The Soviet Era.''</ref> <ref name="Tsaplin">Tsaplin, V.V. (1989) ''Statistika zherty naseleniya v 30e gody.''</ref> <ref name="NoveStalin">Nove, Alec. ''Victims of Stalinism: How Many?'', in ''Stalinist Terror: New Perspectives'' (edited by [[J. Arch Getty]] and Roberta T. Manning), [[Cambridge University Press]], 1993. ISBN 0-521-44670-8.</ref> <ref name="Black">Bibliography: Courtois et al. The Black Book of Communism </ref> <ref name="Davies">Davies, Norman. ''Europe: A History'', Harper Perennial, 1998. ISBN 0-06-097468-0.</ref> <ref name="RummelStalin">Bibliography: Rummel.</ref>


== Democide and ethnic cleansing ==
== Democide and ethnic cleansing ==

{{main|Democide|Genocide|ethnic cleansing}}


Entire nations and ethnic groups have been collectively punished by the Soviet Government for alleged collaboration with the enemy during [[World War II]]. At least nine of distinct ethnic-linguistic groups, including [[History of Germans in Russia and the Soviet Union|ethnic Germans]], ethnic [[Greeks]], [[Polish minority in the Soviet Union|ethnic Poles]], [[Crimean Tatars]], [[Balkars]], [[Chechen people|Chechen]]s, and [[Kalmyk deportations of 1944|Kalmyks]], were deported to remote unpopulated areas of [[Siberia]] (see [[sybirak]]) and [[Kazakhstan]]. [[Population transfer in the Soviet Union]] led to millions of deaths due to the inflicted hardships.<ref name="Conquest">[[Robert Conquest]] (1986) ''The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine.'' [[Oxford University Press]]. ISBN 0-19-505180-7. </ref>[[Deportation of Koreans in the Soviet Union|Koreans]] and [[Deportation of Romanians in the Soviet Union|Romanians]] were also deported. [[Mass operations of the NKVD]] were needed to [[deport]] hundreds of thousands of people.
Entire nations and ethnic groups have been collectively punished by the Soviet Government for alleged collaboration with the enemy during [[World War II]]. At least nine of distinct ethnic-linguistic groups, including [[History of Germans in Russia and the Soviet Union|ethnic Germans]], ethnic [[Greeks]], [[Polish minority in the Soviet Union|ethnic Poles]], [[Crimean Tatars]], [[Balkars]], [[Chechen people|Chechen]]s, and [[Kalmyk deportations of 1944|Kalmyks]], were deported to remote unpopulated areas of [[Siberia]] (see [[sybirak]]) and [[Kazakhstan]]. [[Population transfer in the Soviet Union]] led to millions of deaths due to the inflicted hardships.<ref name="Conquest">[[Robert Conquest]] (1986) ''The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine.'' [[Oxford University Press]]. ISBN 0-19-505180-7. </ref>[[Deportation of Koreans in the Soviet Union|Koreans]] and [[Deportation of Romanians in the Soviet Union|Romanians]] were also deported. [[Mass operations of the NKVD]] were needed to [[deport]] hundreds of thousands of people.


The deaths of millions of people during the [[Soviet famine of 1932-1933]] was caused by confiscating all food and blocking the migration of starving population by the [[government of the Soviet Union]]. <ref name="Conquest"/>. The overall number of the 1932-1933 famine victims Soviet-wide is estimated as 6-7 million<ref name=Tragediya>С. Уиткрофт ([[Stephen G. Wheatcroft)]], [http://lj.streamclub.ru/history/tragedy.html#add2 "О демографических свидетельствах трагедии советской деревни в 1931—1933 гг."] (On demographic evidence of the tragedy of the Soviet village in 1931-1833), "Трагедия советской деревни: Коллективизация и раскулачивание 1927-1939 гг.: Документы и материалы. Том 3. Конец 1930-1933 гг.", Российская политическая энциклопедия, 2001, ISBN 5-8243-0225-1, с. 885, Приложение № 2</ref> or 6-8 million.<ref name="britannica famine"> "[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/612921/Ukraine Ukraine]", [[Encyclopædia Britannica]], 2008.</ref>
The deaths of millions of people during the [[Soviet famine of 1932-1933]] was caused intentionally by confiscating all food and blocking the migration of starving population by the [[government of the Soviet Union]]. <ref name="Conquest"/>. The overall number of peasants who died in 1930&ndash;1937 from hunger and repressions during [[Collectivisation in the USSR|collectivisation]] (including in [[Kavkaz]] and [[Kazakhstan]]) was at least 14.5 million.<ref name="Conquest"/> More than a million of people died earlier during other [[droughts and famines in Russia and the USSR]].


==Red Terror==
==Red Terror==
{{main|Red Terror}}
{{main|Red Terror}}


Red Terror in Soviet Russia was the campaign of mass arrests and [[execution]]s conducted by the [[Bolshevik]] government. The Red Terror was officially announced on [[September 2]], [[1918]] by [[Yakov Sverdlov]] and ended in about October 1918. However [[Sergei Melgunov]] applies this term to repressions for the whole period of the [[Russian Civil War]], 1918-1922.<ref name="Melgunov">[[Sergei Melgunov|Serge Petrovich Melgunov]], ''Red Terror in Russia'', Hyperion Pr (1975), ISBN 0-883-55187-X</ref><ref name="Black"/>
Red Terror in Soviet Russia was the campaign of mass arrests and [[execution]]s conducted by the [[Bolshevik]] government. In [[Soviet historiography]], the Red Terror is described as officially announced on [[September 2]], [[1918]] by [[Yakov Sverdlov]] and ended in about October 1918. However many historians, beginning with [[Sergei Melgunov]], apply this term to repressions for the whole period of the [[Russian Civil War]], 1918-1922.<ref name="Melgunov">[[Sergei Melgunov|Serge Petrovich Melgunov]], ''Red Terror in Russia'', Hyperion Pr (1975), ISBN 0-883-55187-X</ref><ref name="Black"/>

==Russian Civil War==
{{main|Russian Civil War}}

The Russian Civil War (1917–1923) was a multi-party war that occurred within the former [[Russian Empire]] after the [[Russian provisional government]] collapsed and the [[Bolshevik]] party assumed power in [[Saint Petersburg|Petrograd (St. Petersburg)]].


==Collectivization==
==Collectivization==
{{main|Collectivization in the USSR}}
{{main|Collectivization in the USSR}}


Collectivization in the [[Soviet Union]] was a policy, pursued between 1928 and 1933, to consolidate individual land and labour into [[collective farm]]s ({{lang-ru|колхо́з}}, ''[[kolkhoz]]'', plural ''kolkhozy''). <!--and into state farms ({{lang-ru|совхо́з}}, ''[[sovkhoz]]'').--> The Soviet leaders were confident that the replacement of individual peasant farms by kolkhozy would immediately increase food supplies for the urban population, the supply of raw materials for processing industry, and agricultural exports generally. Collectivization was thus regarded as the solution to the crisis in agricultural distribution (mainly in grain deliveries) that had developed since 1927 and was becoming more acute as the Soviet Union pressed ahead with its ambitious industrialization program.<ref>Davies, R.W., ''The Soviet Collective Farms, 1929-1930,'' Macmillan, London (1980), p. 1.</ref> As peasantry, with exception of the poorest part, resisted the collectivization policy, the Soviet government resorted to the harsh measures to force the farmers to collectivize. In his conversation with [[Winston Churchill]] Stalin gave his estimate of the number of "[[kulak]]s" who were repressed for resisting [[collectivization]] as 10 million, including those forcibly deported.<ref>Valentin Berezhkov, "Kak ya stal perevodchikom Stalina", Moscow, DEM, 1993, ISBN 5-85207-044-0. p. 317</ref><ref>Stanislav Kulchytsky, [http://www.zerkalo-nedeli.com/nn/show/420/36833/ "How many of us perished in Holodomor in 1933"], ''[[Zerkalo Nedeli]]'', November 23-29, 2002.</ref>
Collectivization in the [[Soviet Union]] was a policy, pursued between 1928 and 1933, to consolidate individual land and labour into [[collective farm]]s ({{lang-ru|колхо́з}}, ''[[kolkhoz]]'', plural ''kolkhozy''). <!--and into state farms ({{lang-ru|совхо́з}}, ''[[sovkhoz]]'').--> The Soviet leaders were confident that the replacement of individual peasant farms by kolkhozy would immediately increase food supplies for the urban population, the supply of raw materials for processing industry, and agricultural exports generally. Collectivization was thus regarded as the solution to the crisis in agricultural distribution (mainly in grain deliveries) that had developed since 1927 and was becoming more acute as the Soviet Union pressed ahead with its ambitious industrialization program.<ref>Davies, R.W., ''The Soviet Collective Farms, 1929-1930,'' Macmillan, London (1980), p. 1.</ref>


==Great Terror==
==Great Terror==
{{main|Great Terror}}
{{main|Great Terror}}


The Great Purge ({{lang-ru|Большая чистка}}, [[Romanization of Russian|transliterated]] ''Bolshaya chistka'') was a series of campaigns of [[political repression]] and [[persecution]] in the [[Soviet Union]] orchestrated by [[Joseph Stalin]] in 1937-1938.<ref name="Figes">[[Orlando Figes]] ''The Whisperers: Private Life in Stalin's Russia'', 2007, ISBN 0-08050-7461-9, pages 227-315.</ref><ref name="Social Catastrophe">Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe. By Robert Gellately. 2007. Knopf. 720 pages ISBN 1400040051</ref> It involved the [[purge of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union]], repression of [[kulaks|peasants]], deportations of [[ethnic minorities]], and the persecution of unaffiliated persons, characterized by widespread police surveillance, widespread suspicion of "saboteurs", imprisonment, and killings.<ref name="Figes"/> Estimates of the number of deaths associated with the Great Purge run from the official figure of 681,692 to nearly 2 million.
The Great Purge ({{lang-ru|Большая чистка}}, [[Romanization of Russian|transliterated]] ''Bolshaya chistka'') was a series of campaigns of [[political repression]] and [[persecution]] in the [[Soviet Union]] orchestrated by [[Joseph Stalin]] in 1937-1938.<ref name="Figes">[[Orlando Figes]] ''The Whisperers: Private Life in Stalin's Russia'', 2007, ISBN 0-08050-7461-9, pages 227-315.</ref><ref name="Social Catastrophe">Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe. By Robert Gellately. 2007. Knopf. 720 pages ISBN 1400040051</ref> Also described as a "Soviet holocaust" by several authors,<ref>Alan Wood, ''Stalin and Stalinism'', Routledge 1990, ISBN 0415037212, page 37</ref><ref>Ian Kershaw, Moshe Lewin, ''Stalinism and Nazism: Dictatorships in Comparison'', Cambridge University Press 1997, ISBN 0521565219, page 300</ref><ref>Leo Kuper, ''Genocide: Its Political Use in the Twentieth Century'', Yale University Press 1982, ISBN 0300031203</ref> it involved the [[purge of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union]], repression of [[kulaks|peasants]], deportations of [[ethnic minorities]], and the persecution of unaffiliated persons, characterized by widespread police surveillance, widespread suspicion of "saboteurs", imprisonment, and killings.<ref name="Figes"/> Estimates of the number of deaths associated with the Great Purge run from the official figure of 681,692 to nearly 2 million.


==Population transfers==
==Population transfers==
Line 39: Line 46:


Population transfer in the Soviet Union may be classified into the following broad categories: deportations of "[[anti-Soviet]]" categories of population, often classified as "[[enemies of workers]]", deportations of nationalities, labor force transfer, and organized migrations in opposite directions to fill the [[ethnic cleansing|ethnically cleansed]] territories. In most cases their destinations were underpopulated remote areas, see [[Involuntary settlements in the Soviet Union]].
Population transfer in the Soviet Union may be classified into the following broad categories: deportations of "[[anti-Soviet]]" categories of population, often classified as "[[enemies of workers]]", deportations of nationalities, labor force transfer, and organized migrations in opposite directions to fill the [[ethnic cleansing|ethnically cleansed]] territories. In most cases their destinations were underpopulated remote areas, see [[Involuntary settlements in the Soviet Union]].

==World War II and aftermath==
From 1941 on, [[Stalin]] was willing to strike back against the [[Eastern Front (World War II)#Operation Barbarossa: Summer 1941|invading Axis forces]] at all costs and led the war with extreme brutality, including against his own soldiers.<ref name="Merridale, Ivan's War">Catherine Merridale, ''Ivan's War, the Red Army 1939-1945'', London: Faber and Faber, 2005, ISBN 0-5712-1808-3</ref><ref name="Not so friendly">[http://www.rmc.ca/academic/conference/iuscanada/papers/goette_sovietpaper.pdf ''Not-So-Friendly Fire''], Queen’s University, Canada</ref> The Red Army took much higher casualties than any other military force during World War II, in part because of high manpower attrition and inadequate time for training.<ref>[http://www-cgsc.army.mil/carl/resources/csi/glantz2/glantz2.asp CSI Report No. 11]: Soviet Defensive Tactics at Kursk</ref> Faced with badly equipped [[infantry]] units barely capable of standing up against [[machine guns]], [[tanks]] and [[artillery]], the tactics of Soviet commanders were often based on mass infantry attacks, inflicting heavy losses on their own troops. This tactic was also used for clearing minefields, which were ‘attacked’ by waves of infantry soldiers in order to clear them.<ref>David Glantz, Barbarossa: Hitler's Invasion of Russia 1941 (2001) ISBN 0-7524-1979-X </ref><ref>David Glantz, Stumbling Colossus: The Red Army on the Eve of World War (1998) ISBN 0-7006-0879-6</ref><ref>[http://www.ess.uwe.ac.uk/genocide/reviewsw63.htm Review of "Stumbling Colossus"] </ref><ref name="Merridale, Ivan's War">Catherine Merridale, ''Ivan's War, the Red Army 1939-1945'', London: Faber and Faber, 2005, ISBN 0-5712-1808-3</ref> In accordance with the orders of Soviet High Command, retreating soldiers or even soldiers who hesitated to advance faced being shot by rearguard [[SMERSH]] units:
[[Order № 270|Stalin’s order No 270]] of August 16, 1941, states that in case of retreat or surrender, all officers involved were to be shot on the spot and all enlisted men threatened with total annihilation as well as possible reprisals against their families.<ref name="Not so friendly" /><ref>[http://www.hrono.ru/dokum/194_dok/19410816.html Order No 270 in Russian language on hrono.ru] </ref><ref name="Merridale, Ivan's War" />


==Post-Stalin era (1953-1991)==
==Post-Stalin era (1953-1991)==

Revision as of 13:24, 4 November 2008

See also: Category:Victims of Soviet repressions

Throughout different periods of the Soviet history millions of people fell victims of political repressions. Early on the theoretical basis of the repressions was the Marxist view at the class struggle and the resulting notion of the dictatorship of the proletariat. Its legal basis was formalized into the Article 58 in the code of RSFSR and similar articles for other Soviet republics.

The term "repression", "terror", and other strong words were normal working terms with respect to the internal politics of the early Soviet state, reflecting the fact that the dictatorship of the proletariat was supposed apply ruthless force to suppress the resistance of the social classes which Marxism considered antagonistic to the class of proletariat. This phraseology was gradually abolished after destalinization, but the system of persecution for political views and activities remained until the dissolution of the Soviet Union.

At times, the the victims were called the enemies of the people. Punishments by the state included summary executions, torture, sending innocent people to Gulag, involuntary settlement, and stripping of citizen's rights. Sometimes, all members of a family, including children, were punished as "traitor of Motherland family members". Repression was conducted by the Cheka, OGPU and NKVD in several consecutive waves known as Red Terror, Collectivisation, the Great Purges, the Doctor's Plot, and others. The secret police forces conducted massacres of prisoners on numerous occasions. Repression was practiced in the Soviet republics and in the territories liberated by Soviet Army during World War II, including Baltic States and Eastern Europe [1].

State repression led to resistnace, which were brutally suppressed by military force, such as the Tambov rebellion, Kronstadt rebellion, and Vorkuta Uprising. During the Tambov rebellion, Bolshevik military forces used chemical weapons against villages with civilian population and rebels.[2] Prominent citizens of villages were often taken as hostages and executed if the resistance fighters did not surrender. [3]

Loss of life

According to the Guiness Book of Records, 66.7 million people were killed in the Soviet Union by state persecution from October 1917 through 1959 - under Lenin, Stalin, and Khrushev [4]. The exact number of victims may never be known and remains a matter of debate among historians. The result depends on the period of time and the criteria and methods used for the estimates. For example, the number of victims under Joseph Stalin's regime vary from 8 to 61 million [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10]

Democide and ethnic cleansing

Main articles: Democide, Genocide, and ethnic cleansing

Entire nations and ethnic groups have been collectively punished by the Soviet Government for alleged collaboration with the enemy during World War II. At least nine of distinct ethnic-linguistic groups, including ethnic Germans, ethnic Greeks, ethnic Poles, Crimean Tatars, Balkars, Chechens, and Kalmyks, were deported to remote unpopulated areas of Siberia (see sybirak) and Kazakhstan. Population transfer in the Soviet Union led to millions of deaths due to the inflicted hardships.[11]Koreans and Romanians were also deported. Mass operations of the NKVD were needed to deport hundreds of thousands of people.

The deaths of millions of people during the Soviet famine of 1932-1933 was caused intentionally by confiscating all food and blocking the migration of starving population by the government of the Soviet Union. [11]. The overall number of peasants who died in 1930–1937 from hunger and repressions during collectivisation (including in Kavkaz and Kazakhstan) was at least 14.5 million.[11] More than a million of people died earlier during other droughts and famines in Russia and the USSR.

Red Terror

Main article: Red Terror

Red Terror in Soviet Russia was the campaign of mass arrests and executions conducted by the Bolshevik government. In Soviet historiography, the Red Terror is described as officially announced on September 2, 1918 by Yakov Sverdlov and ended in about October 1918. However many historians, beginning with Sergei Melgunov, apply this term to repressions for the whole period of the Russian Civil War, 1918-1922.[12][8]

Russian Civil War

Main article: Russian Civil War

The Russian Civil War (1917–1923) was a multi-party war that occurred within the former Russian Empire after the Russian provisional government collapsed and the Bolshevik party assumed power in Petrograd (St. Petersburg).

Collectivization

Main article: Collectivization in the USSR

Collectivization in the Soviet Union was a policy, pursued between 1928 and 1933, to consolidate individual land and labour into collective farms (Russian: колхо́з, kolkhoz, plural kolkhozy). The Soviet leaders were confident that the replacement of individual peasant farms by kolkhozy would immediately increase food supplies for the urban population, the supply of raw materials for processing industry, and agricultural exports generally. Collectivization was thus regarded as the solution to the crisis in agricultural distribution (mainly in grain deliveries) that had developed since 1927 and was becoming more acute as the Soviet Union pressed ahead with its ambitious industrialization program.[13]

Great Terror

Main article: Great Terror

The Great Purge (Russian: Большая чистка, transliterated Bolshaya chistka) was a series of campaigns of political repression and persecution in the Soviet Union orchestrated by Joseph Stalin in 1937-1938.[14][15] Also described as a "Soviet holocaust" by several authors,[16][17][18] it involved the purge of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, repression of peasants, deportations of ethnic minorities, and the persecution of unaffiliated persons, characterized by widespread police surveillance, widespread suspicion of "saboteurs", imprisonment, and killings.[14] Estimates of the number of deaths associated with the Great Purge run from the official figure of 681,692 to nearly 2 million.

Population transfers

Main article: Population transfer in the Soviet Union

Population transfer in the Soviet Union may be classified into the following broad categories: deportations of "anti-Soviet" categories of population, often classified as "enemies of workers", deportations of nationalities, labor force transfer, and organized migrations in opposite directions to fill the ethnically cleansed territories. In most cases their destinations were underpopulated remote areas, see Involuntary settlements in the Soviet Union.

World War II and aftermath

From 1941 on, Stalin was willing to strike back against the invading Axis forces at all costs and led the war with extreme brutality, including against his own soldiers.[19][20] The Red Army took much higher casualties than any other military force during World War II, in part because of high manpower attrition and inadequate time for training.[21] Faced with badly equipped infantry units barely capable of standing up against machine guns, tanks and artillery, the tactics of Soviet commanders were often based on mass infantry attacks, inflicting heavy losses on their own troops. This tactic was also used for clearing minefields, which were ‘attacked’ by waves of infantry soldiers in order to clear them.[22][23][24][19] In accordance with the orders of Soviet High Command, retreating soldiers or even soldiers who hesitated to advance faced being shot by rearguard SMERSH units: Stalin’s order No 270 of August 16, 1941, states that in case of retreat or surrender, all officers involved were to be shot on the spot and all enlisted men threatened with total annihilation as well as possible reprisals against their families.[20][25][19]

Post-Stalin era (1953-1991)

After Stalin's death, the suppression of dissent was dramatically reduced and took new forms. The internal critics of the system were convicted for anti-Soviet agitation, Anti-Soviet slander, or as "social parasites". Others were labeled as mentally ill, having sluggishly progressing schizophrenia and incarcerated in "psikhushkas", i.e. mental hospitals used by the Soviet authorities as prisons[26]. A number of notable dissidents, including Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, Vladimir Bukovsky, and Andrei Sakharov, were sent to internal or external exile.

See also

References

  1. ^ Anton Antonov-Ovseenko Beria (Russian) Moscow, AST, 1999. Russian text online
  2. ^ B.V.Sennikov. Tambov rebellion and liquidation of peasants in Russia, Publisher: Posev, 2004, ISBN 5-85824-152-2 Full text in Russian
  3. ^ Courtois, Stephane; Werth, Nicolas; Panne, Jean-Louis; Paczkowski, Andrzej; Bartosek, Karel; Margolin, Jean-Louis & Kramer, Mark (1999). The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-07608-7
  4. ^ Yevgenia Albats and Catherine A. Fitzpatrick. The State Within a State: The KGB and Its Hold on Russia - Past, Present, and Future], 1994. ISBN 0-374-18104-7, page 107.
  5. ^ Ponton, G. (1994) The Soviet Era.
  6. ^ Tsaplin, V.V. (1989) Statistika zherty naseleniya v 30e gody.
  7. ^ Nove, Alec. Victims of Stalinism: How Many?, in Stalinist Terror: New Perspectives (edited by J. Arch Getty and Roberta T. Manning), Cambridge University Press, 1993. ISBN 0-521-44670-8.
  8. ^ a b Bibliography: Courtois et al. The Black Book of Communism
  9. ^ Davies, Norman. Europe: A History, Harper Perennial, 1998. ISBN 0-06-097468-0.
  10. ^ Bibliography: Rummel.
  11. ^ a b c Robert Conquest (1986) The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-505180-7.
  12. ^ Serge Petrovich Melgunov, Red Terror in Russia, Hyperion Pr (1975), ISBN 0-883-55187-X
  13. ^ Davies, R.W., The Soviet Collective Farms, 1929-1930, Macmillan, London (1980), p. 1.
  14. ^ a b Orlando Figes The Whisperers: Private Life in Stalin's Russia, 2007, ISBN 0-08050-7461-9, pages 227-315.
  15. ^ Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe. By Robert Gellately. 2007. Knopf. 720 pages ISBN 1400040051
  16. ^ Alan Wood, Stalin and Stalinism, Routledge 1990, ISBN 0415037212, page 37
  17. ^ Ian Kershaw, Moshe Lewin, Stalinism and Nazism: Dictatorships in Comparison, Cambridge University Press 1997, ISBN 0521565219, page 300
  18. ^ Leo Kuper, Genocide: Its Political Use in the Twentieth Century, Yale University Press 1982, ISBN 0300031203
  19. ^ a b c Catherine Merridale, Ivan's War, the Red Army 1939-1945, London: Faber and Faber, 2005, ISBN 0-5712-1808-3
  20. ^ a b Not-So-Friendly Fire, Queen’s University, Canada
  21. ^ CSI Report No. 11: Soviet Defensive Tactics at Kursk
  22. ^ David Glantz, Barbarossa: Hitler's Invasion of Russia 1941 (2001) ISBN 0-7524-1979-X
  23. ^ David Glantz, Stumbling Colossus: The Red Army on the Eve of World War (1998) ISBN 0-7006-0879-6
  24. ^ Review of "Stumbling Colossus"
  25. ^ Order No 270 in Russian language on hrono.ru
  26. ^ The Soviet Case: Prelude to a Global Consensus on Psychiatry and Human Rights. Human Rights Watch. 2005
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