Central American squirrel monkey: Difference between revisions
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| status_ref = <ref name=iucn>{{IUCN2008|assessors=Wong, G., Cuarón, A.D., Rodriguez-Luna, E. & de Grammont, P.C.|year=2008|id=19836|title=Saimiri oerstedii|downloaded=7 October 2008}}</ref> |
| status_ref = <ref name=iucn>{{IUCN2008|assessors=Wong, G., Cuarón, A.D., Rodriguez-Luna, E. & de Grammont, P.C.|year=2008|id=19836|title=Saimiri oerstedii|downloaded=7 October 2008}}</ref> |
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| trend = down |
| trend = down |
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| regnum = [[ |
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia |
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| phylum = [[Chordata]] |
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]] |
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| classis = [[ |
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia |
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| ordo = [[ |
| ordo = [[Primate]]s |
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| familia = [[Cebidae]] |
| familia = [[Cebidae]] |
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| genus = ''[[Saimiri]]'' |
| genus = ''[[squirrel monkey|Saimiri]]'' |
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| species = '''''S. oerstedii''''' |
| species = '''''S. oerstedii''''' |
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| binomial = ''Saimiri oerstedii'' |
| binomial = ''Saimiri oerstedii'' |
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| binomial_authority = [[Johannes Theodor Reinhardt|Reinhardt]], 1872 |
| binomial_authority = [[Johannes Theodor Reinhardt|Reinhardt]], 1872 |
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| range_map = Saimiri oerstedii Range Map.PNG |
| range_map = Saimiri oerstedii Range Map.PNG |
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| range_map_caption = Distribution of Saimiri oerstedii<ref name=perspectives/> |
| range_map_caption = Distribution of ''Saimiri oerstedii''<ref name=perspectives/> |
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}} |
}} |
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The '''Central American Squirrel Monkey''' (''Saimiri oerstedii'') is a [[squirrel monkey]] [[species]] from [[Central America]]. It is found in [[Costa Rica]] and [[Panama]] on the [[Pacific]] coast. Even within Costa Rica and Panama the Central American Squirrel Monkey's range is highly restricted. Within Panama its range is limited to the Western Pacific tip near the Costa Rica border, and within Costa Rica its range is limited to the Central and Southern Pacific coast, primarily in [[Manuel Antonio National Park| |
The '''Central American Squirrel Monkey''' (''Saimiri oerstedii'') is a [[squirrel monkey]] [[species]] from [[Central America]]. It is found in [[Costa Rica]] and [[Panama]] on the [[Pacific]] coast. Even within Costa Rica and Panama the Central American Squirrel Monkey's range is highly restricted. Within Panama its range is limited to the Western Pacific tip near the Costa Rica border, and within Costa Rica its range is limited to the Central and Southern Pacific coast, primarily in [[Manuel Antonio National Park|Manuel Antonio]] and [[Corcovado National Park|Corcovado]] [[national parks]]. |
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It is a small monkey with an orange back and a distinctive white and black facial mask. It lives in large groups that typically contain between 20 and 75 monkeys. It has one of the most egalitarian social structures of all monkeys. Females do not form dominance hierarchies, and males only form dominance hierarchies at breeding season. But even during breeding season, males do not fight over females and do not attempt to force females to copulate with them. It has an omnivorous diet, eating fruits, other plant materials, [[invertebrate]]s (especially [[grasshopper]]s and [[caterpillar]]s) and some small [[vertebrate]]s. In turn, it has a number of predators, including [[bird of prey|raptors]], [[Felidae|cats]] and snakes. |
It is a small monkey with an orange back and a distinctive white and black facial mask. It lives in large groups that typically contain between 20 and 75 monkeys. It has one of the most egalitarian social structures of all monkeys. Females do not form dominance hierarchies, and males only form dominance hierarchies at breeding season. But even during breeding season, males do not fight over females and do not attempt to force females to copulate with them. It has an omnivorous diet, eating fruits, other plant materials, [[invertebrate]]s (especially [[grasshopper]]s and [[caterpillar]]s) and some small [[vertebrate]]s. In turn, it has a number of predators, including [[bird of prey|raptors]], [[Felidae|cats]] and snakes. |
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Reproduction is seasonal, with all births occurring within a short period of time in February and March. Females become sexually mature at 2 |
Reproduction is seasonal, with all births occurring within a short period of time in February and March. Females become sexually mature at 2½ years, and males become sexually mature at 4 to 5 years. Sexually mature females leave the natal group, but males can remain with their natal group their entire life. The Central American Squirrel Monkey can live for more than 15 years. |
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The Central American Squirrel Monkey population declined precipitously since the 1970s. This decline is believed to be due to [[deforestation]], hunting, and capture to be kept as pets. Efforts are underway to preserve the species. Despite the threats to the Central American Squirrel Monkey population, in 2008 the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN) upgraded its conservation status from "endangered" to "vulnerable". |
The Central American Squirrel Monkey population declined precipitously since the 1970s. This decline is believed to be due to [[deforestation]], hunting, and capture to be kept as pets. Efforts are underway to preserve the species. Despite the threats to the Central American Squirrel Monkey population, in 2008 the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN) upgraded its conservation status from "endangered" to "vulnerable". |
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==Description== |
==Description== |
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The Central American Squirrel Monkey differs in coloration |
The Central American Squirrel Monkey differs in coloration from [[South America]]n squirrel monkeys. While South American squirrel monkeys tend to be primarily greenish in color, the Central American species has a orange back with olive shoulders, hips and tail and white undersides. The hands and feet are also orange. There is a black cap at the top of the head, and a black tip at the end of the tail. Males generally have lighter caps than females. The face is white with black rims around the eyes and black around the nose and mouth.<ref name=pic>{{cite book|title=The Pictorial Guide to the Living Primates|author=Rowe, N.|page=98|year=1996|publisher=Pogonias Press|isbn=0-9648825-0-7}}</ref><ref name=field>{{cite book|title=Neotropical Rainforest Mammals A Field Guide|edition=Second Edition|author=Emmons, L.|year=1997|pages=126–127|publisher=The University of Chicago Press|isbn=0-226-20721-8}}</ref> |
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[[Image:Central American Squirrel Monkey 2.jpeg|thumb|left| |
[[Image:Central American Squirrel Monkey 2.jpeg|thumb|left|Body coloration]] |
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There are two subspecies which are similar in coloration, but differ in the shade of the cap. The northern subspecies, living in Central Pacific Costa Rica, has a lighter cap than the southern subspecies, which lives in Panama and in parts of Costa Rica near Panama.<ref name=field/> The southern subspecies also has more yellowish limbs and underparts.<ref name=perspectives/> |
There are two subspecies which are similar in coloration, but differ in the shade of the cap. The northern subspecies, living in Central Pacific Costa Rica, has a lighter cap than the southern subspecies, which lives in Panama and in parts of Costa Rica near Panama.<ref name=field/> The southern subspecies also has more yellowish limbs and underparts.<ref name=perspectives/> |
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Adults reach a length of between {{convert|266|and|291|mm|in|lk=on}}, excluding tail, and a weight between {{convert|600|and|950|g|oz|lk=on}}.<ref name=field/><ref name=perspective>{{cite book|title=Primates in Perspective|chapter=The Cebines|author=Jack, K.|editor = Campbell, C., Fuentes, A., MacKinnon, K., Panger, M., & Bearder, S.|year=2007|publisher=The Oxford University Press|pages=107–120|isbn=978-0-19-517133-4}}</ref> The tail is longer than the body, and between {{convert|362|and|389|mm|in|lk=on|abbr=on}} in length.<ref name=field/> As with other squirrel monkeys, there is considerable [[sexual dimorphism]]. On average, males weigh 16% more than females.<ref name=perspective/> Males have an average body weight of {{convert|829|g|oz|lk=on|abbr=on}} and females |
Adults reach a length of between {{convert|266|and|291|mm|in|lk=on}}, excluding tail, and a weight between {{convert|600|and|950|g|oz|lk=on}}.<ref name=field/><ref name=perspective>{{cite book|title=Primates in Perspective|chapter=The Cebines|author=Jack, K.|editor = Campbell, C., Fuentes, A., MacKinnon, K., Panger, M., & Bearder, S.|year=2007|publisher=The Oxford University Press|pages=107–120|isbn=978-0-19-517133-4}}</ref> The tail is longer than the body, and between {{convert|362|and|389|mm|in|lk=on|abbr=on}} in length.<ref name=field/> As with other squirrel monkeys, there is considerable [[sexual dimorphism]]. On average, males weigh 16% more than females.<ref name=perspective/> Males have an average body weight of {{convert|829|g|oz|lk=on|abbr=on}} and females average {{convert|695|g|oz|lk=on|abbr=on}}.<ref name=perspective/> Squirrel monkeys have the largest brains of all [[primates]] relative to their body size;<ref>{{cite web|title=Squirrel Monkey|publisher=Rainforest Alliance|url=http://www.rainforest-alliance.org/resources/forest-facts/species-profiles/squirrelmonkey.html|accessdate=2008-10-18}}</ref> The Central American Squirrel Monkey's brain weighs about {{convert|25.7|g|oz|lk=on|abbr=on}}, or about 4% of its body weight.<ref name=pic/> |
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Unlike larger relatives, such as the [[capuchin monkey|capuchin]], [[spider monkey|spider]] and [[howler monkey]]s, adult Central American Squirrel Monkeys do not have a fully prehensile tail |
Unlike larger relatives, such as the [[capuchin monkey|capuchin]], [[spider monkey|spider]] and [[howler monkey]]s, adult Central American Squirrel Monkeys do not have a fully prehensile tail, except as newborn infants, and the tail is primarily used to help with balance.<ref>{{cite book|title=Primate Ecology and Social Structure Volume 2: New World Monkeys|edition=Revised First Edition|author=Sussman, R.|year=2003|page=76|publisher=Pearson Custom Publishing|isbn=0-536-74364-9}}</ref><ref name=fleagle>{{cite book|title=Primate Adaption and Evolution|edition=Second Edition|author=Fleagle, J.|page=157–160|year=1998|publisher=Academic Press|isbn=0122603419}}</ref> |
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==Distribution and habitat== |
==Distribution and habitat== |
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==Behavior== |
==Behavior== |
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===Social structure=== |
===Social structure=== |
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[[File:Central American Squirrel Monkey.jpg|thumb| |
[[File:Central American Squirrel Monkey.jpg|thumb|Resting on a branch]] |
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The Central American Squirrel Monkey is [[arboreal]] and [[diurnal]], and most often |
The Central American Squirrel Monkey is [[arboreal]] and [[diurnal]], and most often moves through the trees on four legs ([[quadrupedal]] locomotion).<ref name=pic/> It lives in groups containing several adult males, adult females and juveniles. The group size tends to be smaller than that of South American squirrel monkeys, but is still larger than for many other New World monkey species. The group generally numbers between 20 and 75 monkeys, with a mean of 41 monkeys.<ref name=costa/><ref name=perspective/> Groups in excess of 100 sometimes occur, but these are believed to be temporary mergers of two groups.<ref name=iucn/> On average, groups contain about 60% more females than males.<ref name=perspective/> |
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The squirrel monkey groups have a home range of between 35 and 63 hectares.<ref name=costa/> Group ranges can overlap, especially in large, protected areas such as |
The squirrel monkey groups have a home range of between 35 and 63 hectares.<ref name=costa/> Group ranges can overlap, especially in large, protected areas such as Manuel Antonio National Park. Less overlap occurs in more fragmented areas.<ref name=costa/> Groups can cover 2,500 to 4,200 meters per day.<ref name=sussman>{{cite book|title=Primate Ecology and Social Structure Volume 2: New World Monkeys|edition=Revised First Edition|author=Sussman, R.|year=2003|page=86|publisher=Pearson Custom Publishing|isbn=0-536-74364-9}}</ref> Unlike some other monkey species, the group does not split into separate foraging groups during the day. But individual monkeys may separate for the main group to engage in different activities (e.g., foraging, playing, resting) for periods of time, and thus the group may be dispersed over an area of up to three acres at any given time.<ref name=boinski>{{cite book|title=The Primate Anthology|chapter=Monkeys with Inflated Sex Appeal|author=Boinski, S.|editor=Ciochon, R. & Nisbett, R.|pages=174–179|year=1992|publisher=Prentice-Hall|isbn=0-13-613845-4}}</ref> The group tends to sleep in the same trees every night for months at a time, unlike other squirrel monkeys.<ref name=boinski/> |
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There are no dominance hierarchies among the females, and the females do not form coalitions.<ref name=iucn/><ref name=perspective/> Males only form dominance hierarchies during breeding season.<ref name=perspective/> Males in the group are generally related to each other and thus tend to form strong affiliations.<ref name=perspective/> This is especially the case among males of the same age.<ref name=costa/> Neither males nor females are dominant over each other. The Central American Squirrel Monkey's egalitarian social system is unique to Central American squirrel monkeys. In South American species, either the females (''S. boliviensis'') or males (''S. sciureus'') are dominant over the other sex, and both sexes form stable dominance hierarchies.<ref name=perspective/> Groups of Central American Squirrel Monkeys generally do not compete or fight with each other.<ref name=iucn/> Males are primarily responsible for watching for predators.<ref name=iucn/> |
There are no dominance hierarchies among the females, and the females do not form coalitions.<ref name=iucn/><ref name=perspective/> Males only form dominance hierarchies during the breeding season.<ref name=perspective/> Males in the group are generally related to each other and thus tend to form strong affiliations.<ref name=perspective/> This is especially the case among males of the same age.<ref name=costa/> Neither males nor females are dominant over each other. The Central American Squirrel Monkey's egalitarian social system is unique to Central American squirrel monkeys. In South American species, either the females (''S. boliviensis'') or males (''S. sciureus'') are dominant over the other sex, and both sexes form stable dominance hierarchies.<ref name=perspective/> Groups of Central American Squirrel Monkeys generally do not compete or fight with each other.<ref name=iucn/> Males are primarily responsible for watching for predators.<ref name=iucn/> |
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Although South American species of squirrel monkeys often travel with and feed together with [[capuchin monkey]]s, the Central American Squirrel Monkey only rarely associates with the [[White-headed Capuchin]]. This appears to be related to the fact that the food the Central American Squirrel Monkey eats is distributed in smaller, more dispersed patches than that of South American squirrel monkeys. As a result of the different food distribution, associating with capuchin monkeys would impose higher foraging costs for the Central American Squirrel Monkey than for their South American counterparts. In addition, while male |
Although South American species of squirrel monkeys often travel with and feed together with [[capuchin monkey]]s, the Central American Squirrel Monkey only rarely associates with the [[White-headed Capuchin]]. This appears to be related to the fact that the food the Central American Squirrel Monkey eats is distributed in smaller, more dispersed patches than that of South American squirrel monkeys. As a result of the different food distribution, associating with capuchin monkeys would impose higher foraging costs for the Central American Squirrel Monkey than for their South American counterparts. In addition, while male White-headed Capuchins are alert to predators, they devote more attention to detecting rival males than to detecting predators, and relatively less time to detecting predators than their South American counterparts. Therefore, associating with capuchins would provide less predator detection benefits and impose higher foraging costs on the Central American Squirrel Monkey than on South American squirrel monkeys.<ref name=perspective/><ref name=move>{{cite book|title=On the Move|chapter=Social Manipulation Within and Between Troops Mediates Primate Group Movement|author=Boinski, S.|editor=Boinski, S. and Garber, P.|year=2000|publisher=The University of Chicago Press|isbn=0-226-06340-2|pages=447–448}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Why don’t Saimiri oerstedii and Cebus capucinus form mixed-species groups?|author=Boinski, S.|journal=International Journal of Primatology|volume=10|issue=2|date=April, 1989|year=1989|pages=103–114|doi=10.1007/BF02736248}}</ref><ref name=fleagle/> |
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Certain bird species associate with the Central American Squirrel Monkey. The birds follow the monkeys in a attempt to prey on insects and small vertebrates that the monkeys flush out. At [[Corcovado National Park]], bird species known to regularly follow squirrel monkeys include the [[Double-toothed Kite]], the [[Grey-headed Tanager]] and the [[Tawny-winged Woodcreeper]], but |
Certain bird species associate with the Central American Squirrel Monkey. The birds follow the monkeys in a attempt to prey on insects and small vertebrates that the monkeys flush out. At [[Corcovado National Park]], bird species known to regularly follow squirrel monkeys include the [[Double-toothed Kite]], the [[Grey-headed Tanager]] and the [[Tawny-winged Woodcreeper]], but other [[woodcreeper]]s and species such as [[motmot]]s, [[trogon]]s, and even some birds of prey do so as well. This activity increases during the wet season, when [[arthropod]]s are harder to find.<ref name=costa/> |
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===Diet=== |
===Diet=== |
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[[Image:Central American Squirrel Monkey 3.jpeg|thumb| |
[[Image:Central American Squirrel Monkey 3.jpeg|thumb|Foraging in [[Manuel Antonio National Park]]]] |
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The Central American Squirrel Monkey is [[omnivore|omnivorous]]. Its diet includes insects and insect larvae (especially [[grasshopper]]s and [[caterpillar]]s), spiders, fruit, leaves, bark, flowers and nectar. It also eats small [[vertebrate]]s, including bats, birds, lizards and frogs. It finds its food foraging through the lower and middle levels of the forest, typically between fifteen and thirty feet high.<ref name=costa/><ref name=boinski/> |
The Central American Squirrel Monkey is [[omnivore|omnivorous]]. Its diet includes insects and insect larvae (especially [[grasshopper]]s and [[caterpillar]]s), spiders, fruit, leaves, bark, flowers and nectar. It also eats small [[vertebrate]]s, including bats, birds, lizards and frogs. It finds its food foraging through the lower and middle levels of the forest, typically between fifteen and thirty feet high.<ref name=costa/><ref name=boinski/> |
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It eats a wide variety of fruits. Fruits eaten include [[cecropia]]s, [[legume]]s, [[fig]]s, [[palm tree|palms]], [[Symphonia globulifera|cerillo]], [[Pseudolmedia|quiubra]], [[Xylopia|yayo flaco]], wild [[cashew]] fruits, and fruits from relatives of the [[black pepper]] and [[coffee]] plants.<ref name=costa/><ref name=boinski/> |
It eats a wide variety of fruits. Fruits eaten include [[cecropia]]s, [[legume]]s, [[fig]]s, [[palm tree|palms]], [[Symphonia globulifera|cerillo]], [[Pseudolmedia|quiubra]], [[Xylopia|yayo flaco]], wild [[cashew]] fruits, and fruits from relatives of the [[black pepper]] and [[coffee]] plants.<ref name=costa/><ref name=boinski/> |
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The Central American Squirrel Monkey is believed to be an important seed disperser. It is also believed to be a |
The Central American Squirrel Monkey is believed to be an important seed disperser. It is also believed to be a pollinator of certain flowers, including the [[passion flower]]. While it is not a significant agricultural pest, it does sometimes eat corn, coffee, [[banana]]s and [[mango]]s.<ref name=costa/> |
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Two |
Two-thirds to three-quarters of each day is spent foraging for food. It has difficulty finding its desired food late in the wet season, when fewer [[arthropods]] are available to eat.<ref name=field/> |
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===Communication=== |
===Communication=== |
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===Predators=== |
===Predators=== |
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Predators of the Central American Squirrel Monkey include |
Predators of the Central American Squirrel Monkey include bird of prey, [[Felidae|cats]] and snakes. Constricting and venomous snakes both prey on squirrel monkeys. Raptors are particularly effective predators of Central American Squirrel Monkeys.<ref name=perspective/> The oldest males bear most of the responsibility for detecting predators.<ref name=costa/> When a Central American Squirrel Monkey detects a raptor, it gives a high-pitched alarm peep and dives for cover. All other squirrel monkeys that hear the alarm call also dive for cover. The monkeys are particularly cautious about raptors, and give alarms and dive for cover when they detect any raptor-like object, including small [[airplane]]s and even falling branches and large leaves.<ref name=boinski/> |
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Predator detection by the males becomes particularly important during the period when the infants are born. Raptors spend significantly more time near the squirrel monkey troops during this period, and prey on a significant number of the newborn infants. Other animals that prey on Central American Squirrel Monkey infants include [[toucan]]s, [[tayra]]s, [[opossum]]s, [[coati]]s, snakes, and even [[spider monkey]]s.<ref name=boinski/> |
Predator detection by the males becomes particularly important during the period when the infants are born. Raptors spend significantly more time near the squirrel monkey troops during this period, and prey on a significant number of the newborn infants. Other animals that prey on Central American Squirrel Monkey infants include [[toucan]]s, [[tayra]]s, [[opossum]]s, [[coati]]s, snakes, and even [[spider monkey]]s.<ref name=boinski/> |
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[[Image:Central American Squirrel Monkey baby gets a ride.jpeg|thumb|left|Two-month-old infant riding on mother's back]] |
[[Image:Central American Squirrel Monkey baby gets a ride.jpeg|thumb|left|Two-month-old infant riding on mother's back]] |
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The breeding season for the Central American Squirrel Monkey is in September.<ref name=costa/> All females come into [[Estrous cycle|estrus]] at virtually the same time. A month or two before the breeding season begins, males become larger. This is not due to extra muscle, but to altered water balance within the male's body. This |
The breeding season for the Central American Squirrel Monkey is in September.<ref name=costa/> All females come into [[Estrous cycle|estrus]] at virtually the same time. A month or two before the breeding season begins, males become larger. This is not due to extra muscle, but to altered water balance within the male's body. This is caused by conversion of the male hormone [[testosterone]] into [[estrogen]]; thus the more testosterone a male produces, the more he grows in advance of the breeding season. Since males within a group have not been observed fighting over access to females during breeding season, nor attempting to force females to copulate with them, it is believed that female choice determines which males get to breed with females. Females tend to prefer the males that expand the most in advance of breeding season. This may be because the most enlarged males are generally the oldest and the most effective at detecting predators, or it may be a case of runaway [[sexual selection|intersexual selection]].<ref name=boinski/> |
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Males sometimes leave their group for short periods of time during the breeding season in order to try to mate with females from neighboring groups. Females are receptive to males from other groups, although resident males attempt to repel the |
Males sometimes leave their group for short periods of time during the breeding season in order to try to mate with females from neighboring groups. Females are receptive to males from other groups, although resident males attempt to repel the intruders. The [[gestation period]] is six months, and the infants are born within a single week during February and March. Typically, a single infant is born.<ref name=costa/><ref name=perspective/><ref name=boinski/> |
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The infant remains dependent on its mother for about one year.<ref name=costa/> However, only 50% of infants survive more than six months, largely due to predation by birds.<ref name=perspective/> Females give birth every 12 months, so the prior infant becomes independent at about the same time the new infant is born. Females become sexually mature at 2 |
The infant remains dependent on its mother for about one year.<ref name=costa/> However, only 50% of infants survive more than six months, largely due to predation by birds.<ref name=perspective/> Females give birth every 12 months, so the prior infant becomes independent at about the same time the new infant is born. Females become sexually mature at 2½ years old, while males become sexually mature at between 4 and 5 years old.<ref name=perspective/> The females leave their natal group upon reaching sexual maturity, while males usually remain with their group for their entire lives. This is different from South American squirrel monkey species, where either males disperse from their natal group or both sexes disperse.<ref name=perspective/> Males of the same age tend to associate with each other in age cohorts. If upon reaching sexual maturity, an age cohort may choose to leave the group and attempt to oust the males from another group in order to attain increased reproductive opportunities.<ref name=perspective/> |
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The lifespan of the Central American Squirrel Monkey in the wild is unknown, but captive specimens have been know to live more than 15 years.<ref name=costa/> Other squirrel monkey species are known to be able to live more than 20 years.<ref name=perspective/> |
The lifespan of the Central American Squirrel Monkey in the wild is unknown, but captive specimens have been know to live more than 15 years.<ref name=costa/> Other squirrel monkey species are known to be able to live more than 20 years.<ref name=perspective/> |
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==Status== |
==Status== |
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It was once believed that the Central American Squirrel Monkey was just a population of a South American species of squirrel monkey brought to Central America by humans. Evidence for this theory included the very small range of the Central American Squirrel Monkey and the large gap from the range of any other squirrel monkey species. |
It was once believed that the Central American Squirrel Monkey was just a population of a South American species of squirrel monkey brought to Central America by humans. Evidence for this theory included the very small range of the Central American Squirrel Monkey and the large gap from the range of any other squirrel monkey species. A study of [[nuclear DNA|nuclear]] and [[mitochondrial DNA]] demonstrated that the Central American Squirrel Monkey is indeed a separate species that apparently diverged from the South American species long ago - at least 260,000 years ago and possibly more than 4 million years ago.<ref name=perspectives>{{cite book | author = Rylands, A., Groves, C., Mittenmeier, R., Cortes-Ortiz, L. & Hines, J.| editor = Estrada, A., Garber, P., Pavelka, M. & Luecke, L. | publisher=Springer|location=New York | chapter = Taxonomy and Distributions of Mesoamerican Primates | title = New Perspectives in the Study of Mesoamerican Primates| pages =37–39| isbn = 978-0-387-25854-6 | year = 2006}}</ref> |
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[[Image:Central American Squirrel Monkey 7.jpeg|thumb|left| |
[[Image:Central American Squirrel Monkey 7.jpeg|thumb|left|On a balcony of a development near Manuel Antonio National Park]] |
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One popular theory is that squirrel monkeys did live in Columbia during the late [[Miocene]] or [[Pliocene]] and these squirrel monkeys migrated to Central America, becoming the ancestors of the current Central American species. According to this theory, the [[Guatemalan Black Howler]] migrated to Central America around the same time. |
One popular theory is that squirrel monkeys did live in Columbia during the late [[Miocene]] or [[Pliocene]] and these squirrel monkeys migrated to Central America, becoming the ancestors of the current Central American species. According to this theory, the [[Guatemalan Black Howler]] migrated to Central America around the same time. Passage through the [[isthmus]] of [[Panama]] later closed due to rising oceans, and eventually opened up to another wave of migration about 2 million years ago. These later migrants, ancestors to modern populations of [[White-headed Capuchin]]s, [[Mantled Howler]]s and [[Geoffroy's Spider Monkey]]s, out-competed the earlier migrants, leading to the small range of the Central American Squirrel Monkey and Guatemalan Black Howler.<ref>{{cite book | author = Ford, S.| editor = Estrada, A.; Garber, P.A.; Pavelka, M.S.M.; Luecke, L. | chapter = The Biographic History of Mesoamerican Primates | title = New Perspectives in the Study of Mesoamerican Primates| pages = 100–107| publisher=Springer|location=New York | isbn = 978-0-387-25854-6 | year = 2006}}</ref> |
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The population density has been estimated at 36 monkeys per kilometer in Costa Rica and 130 monkeys per kilometer in Panama.<ref name=sussman/> It has been estimated that the population of the Central American Squirrel Monkey has been reduced from about 200,000 in the 1970s to less than 5000.<ref name=watching/> This is believed to be largely due to [[deforestation]], [[hunting]], and capture for the [[pet]] trade.<ref name=watching/> There are significant efforts within Costa Rica to try to preserve this monkey from extinction.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ascomoti.com/index.html|title=Save the Mono Titi Manuel Antonio Costa Rica|publisher=ASCOMOTI|accessdate=2008-05-12}}</ref> A reforestation project within Panama tries to preserve the vanishing population of the Chiriqui Province.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Rainforest Returns|publisher=Saimiri Wildlife|url=http://www.saimiri.org/en|accessdate=2008-10-25}}</ref> |
The population density has been estimated at 36 monkeys per kilometer in Costa Rica and 130 monkeys per kilometer in Panama.<ref name=sussman/> It has been estimated that the population of the Central American Squirrel Monkey has been reduced from about 200,000 in the 1970s to less than 5000.<ref name=watching/> This is believed to be largely due to [[deforestation]], [[hunting]], and capture for the [[pet]] trade.<ref name=watching/> There are significant efforts within Costa Rica to try to preserve this monkey from extinction.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ascomoti.com/index.html|title=Save the Mono Titi Manuel Antonio Costa Rica|publisher=ASCOMOTI|accessdate=2008-05-12}}</ref> A reforestation project within Panama tries to preserve the vanishing population of the Chiriqui Province.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Rainforest Returns|publisher=Saimiri Wildlife|url=http://www.saimiri.org/en|accessdate=2008-10-25}}</ref> |
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As of 2008, the Central American Squirrel Monkey is listed as "vulnerable" from a conservation standpoint by the [[IUCN]]. This is due to the fact that its range encompasses just |
As of 2008, the Central American Squirrel Monkey is listed as "vulnerable" from a conservation standpoint by the [[IUCN]]. This is due to the fact that its range encompasses just 8,000 square kilometers, its range is fragmented, and it suffers from ongoing habitat loss. This assessment is an improvement from the 2003 assessment, in which the Central American Squirrel Monkey was listed as "endangered".<ref name=iucn/> |
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==Taxonomy== |
==Taxonomy== |
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* [[Grey-crowned Central American Squirrel Monkey]], ''Saimiri oerstedii citrinellus'' |
* [[Grey-crowned Central American Squirrel Monkey]], ''Saimiri oerstedii citrinellus'' |
||
''S. o. oerstadii'' lives in the western [[Pacific]] portion of Panama and the [[Osa Peninsula]] area of Costa Rica (including [[Corcovado National Park]]), while ''S. o. citrinellus'' lives in the Central Pacific portion of Costa Rica. It has been estimated (most recently in 2003) that the remaining wild population of ''S. o. citrinellus'' is only |
''S. o. oerstadii'' lives in the western [[Pacific]] portion of Panama and the [[Osa Peninsula]] area of Costa Rica (including [[Corcovado National Park]]), while ''S. o. citrinellus'' lives in the Central Pacific portion of Costa Rica. It has been estimated (most recently in 2003) that the remaining wild population of ''S. o. citrinellus'' is only 1300 to 1800 individuals.<ref name=iucn/> |
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==References== |
==References== |
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Revision as of 16:44, 23 January 2009
 | This article's lead section may be too long. |
| Central American Squirrel Monkey[1] | |
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| Scientific classification | |
| Kingdom: | |
| Phylum: | |
| Class: | |
| Order: | |
| Family: | |
| Genus: | |
| Species: | S. oerstedii
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| Binomial name | |
| Saimiri oerstedii Reinhardt, 1872
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| Distribution of Saimiri oerstedii[3] | |
The Central American Squirrel Monkey (Saimiri oerstedii) is a squirrel monkey species from Central America. It is found in Costa Rica and Panama on the Pacific coast. Even within Costa Rica and Panama the Central American Squirrel Monkey's range is highly restricted. Within Panama its range is limited to the Western Pacific tip near the Costa Rica border, and within Costa Rica its range is limited to the Central and Southern Pacific coast, primarily in Manuel Antonio and Corcovado national parks.
It is a small monkey with an orange back and a distinctive white and black facial mask. It lives in large groups that typically contain between 20 and 75 monkeys. It has one of the most egalitarian social structures of all monkeys. Females do not form dominance hierarchies, and males only form dominance hierarchies at breeding season. But even during breeding season, males do not fight over females and do not attempt to force females to copulate with them. It has an omnivorous diet, eating fruits, other plant materials, invertebrates (especially grasshoppers and caterpillars) and some small vertebrates. In turn, it has a number of predators, including raptors, cats and snakes.
Reproduction is seasonal, with all births occurring within a short period of time in February and March. Females become sexually mature at 2½ years, and males become sexually mature at 4 to 5 years. Sexually mature females leave the natal group, but males can remain with their natal group their entire life. The Central American Squirrel Monkey can live for more than 15 years.
The Central American Squirrel Monkey population declined precipitously since the 1970s. This decline is believed to be due to deforestation, hunting, and capture to be kept as pets. Efforts are underway to preserve the species. Despite the threats to the Central American Squirrel Monkey population, in 2008 the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) upgraded its conservation status from "endangered" to "vulnerable".
Description
The Central American Squirrel Monkey differs in coloration from South American squirrel monkeys. While South American squirrel monkeys tend to be primarily greenish in color, the Central American species has a orange back with olive shoulders, hips and tail and white undersides. The hands and feet are also orange. There is a black cap at the top of the head, and a black tip at the end of the tail. Males generally have lighter caps than females. The face is white with black rims around the eyes and black around the nose and mouth.[4][5]
There are two subspecies which are similar in coloration, but differ in the shade of the cap. The northern subspecies, living in Central Pacific Costa Rica, has a lighter cap than the southern subspecies, which lives in Panama and in parts of Costa Rica near Panama.[5] The southern subspecies also has more yellowish limbs and underparts.[3]
Adults reach a length of between 266 and 291 millimetres (10.5 and 11.5 in), excluding tail, and a weight between 600 and 950 grams (21 and 34 oz).[5][6] The tail is longer than the body, and between 362 and 389 mm (14.3 and 15.3 in) in length.[5] As with other squirrel monkeys, there is considerable sexual dimorphism. On average, males weigh 16% more than females.[6] Males have an average body weight of 829 g (29.2 oz) and females average 695 g (24.5 oz).[6] Squirrel monkeys have the largest brains of all primates relative to their body size;[7] The Central American Squirrel Monkey's brain weighs about 25.7 g (0.91 oz), or about 4% of its body weight.[4]
Unlike larger relatives, such as the capuchin, spider and howler monkeys, adult Central American Squirrel Monkeys do not have a fully prehensile tail, except as newborn infants, and the tail is primarily used to help with balance.[8][9]
Distribution and habitat
The Central American Squirrel Monkey has a restricted distribution in Costa Rica and Panama. It lives only near the Pacific coast. Its range covers Central Pacific Costa Rica in the north through western Panama.
The Central American Squirrel Monkey lives lowland forests.[4] It is restricted to secondary forests and also in primary forests which have been partially logged.[10] It requires forests with abundant low and mid-level vegetation.[5][10] It has difficulty surviving in tall, mature, undisturbed forests that do not have abundant low level vegetation.[5]
The Central American Squirrel Monkey lives in two of Costa Rica's national parks — Manuel Antonio National Park and Corcovado National Park — where it can be seen by visitors.[11] However, it is not as commonly seen in these parks as the White-headed Capuchin or the Mantled Howler monkeys.[12]
Behavior
Social structure
The Central American Squirrel Monkey is arboreal and diurnal, and most often moves through the trees on four legs (quadrupedal locomotion).[4] It lives in groups containing several adult males, adult females and juveniles. The group size tends to be smaller than that of South American squirrel monkeys, but is still larger than for many other New World monkey species. The group generally numbers between 20 and 75 monkeys, with a mean of 41 monkeys.[10][6] Groups in excess of 100 sometimes occur, but these are believed to be temporary mergers of two groups.[2] On average, groups contain about 60% more females than males.[6]
The squirrel monkey groups have a home range of between 35 and 63 hectares.[10] Group ranges can overlap, especially in large, protected areas such as Manuel Antonio National Park. Less overlap occurs in more fragmented areas.[10] Groups can cover 2,500 to 4,200 meters per day.[13] Unlike some other monkey species, the group does not split into separate foraging groups during the day. But individual monkeys may separate for the main group to engage in different activities (e.g., foraging, playing, resting) for periods of time, and thus the group may be dispersed over an area of up to three acres at any given time.[14] The group tends to sleep in the same trees every night for months at a time, unlike other squirrel monkeys.[14]
There are no dominance hierarchies among the females, and the females do not form coalitions.[2][6] Males only form dominance hierarchies during the breeding season.[6] Males in the group are generally related to each other and thus tend to form strong affiliations.[6] This is especially the case among males of the same age.[10] Neither males nor females are dominant over each other. The Central American Squirrel Monkey's egalitarian social system is unique to Central American squirrel monkeys. In South American species, either the females (S. boliviensis) or males (S. sciureus) are dominant over the other sex, and both sexes form stable dominance hierarchies.[6] Groups of Central American Squirrel Monkeys generally do not compete or fight with each other.[2] Males are primarily responsible for watching for predators.[2]
Although South American species of squirrel monkeys often travel with and feed together with capuchin monkeys, the Central American Squirrel Monkey only rarely associates with the White-headed Capuchin. This appears to be related to the fact that the food the Central American Squirrel Monkey eats is distributed in smaller, more dispersed patches than that of South American squirrel monkeys. As a result of the different food distribution, associating with capuchin monkeys would impose higher foraging costs for the Central American Squirrel Monkey than for their South American counterparts. In addition, while male White-headed Capuchins are alert to predators, they devote more attention to detecting rival males than to detecting predators, and relatively less time to detecting predators than their South American counterparts. Therefore, associating with capuchins would provide less predator detection benefits and impose higher foraging costs on the Central American Squirrel Monkey than on South American squirrel monkeys.[6][15][16][9]
Certain bird species associate with the Central American Squirrel Monkey. The birds follow the monkeys in a attempt to prey on insects and small vertebrates that the monkeys flush out. At Corcovado National Park, bird species known to regularly follow squirrel monkeys include the Double-toothed Kite, the Grey-headed Tanager and the Tawny-winged Woodcreeper, but other woodcreepers and species such as motmots, trogons, and even some birds of prey do so as well. This activity increases during the wet season, when arthropods are harder to find.[10]
Diet
The Central American Squirrel Monkey is omnivorous. Its diet includes insects and insect larvae (especially grasshoppers and caterpillars), spiders, fruit, leaves, bark, flowers and nectar. It also eats small vertebrates, including bats, birds, lizards and frogs. It finds its food foraging through the lower and middle levels of the forest, typically between fifteen and thirty feet high.[10][14]
It has a unique method of capturing Tent-making Bats. It looks for roosting bats by looking for their tents (which are made of a folded leaf). When it finds a bat it climbs to a higher level and jumps onto the tent from above, attempting to dislodge the bat. If the fallen bat doesn't fly away in time, the monkey pounces on it on the ground and eats it.[10]
It eats a wide variety of fruits. Fruits eaten include cecropias, legumes, figs, palms, cerillo, quiubra, yayo flaco, wild cashew fruits, and fruits from relatives of the black pepper and coffee plants.[10][14]
The Central American Squirrel Monkey is believed to be an important seed disperser. It is also believed to be a pollinator of certain flowers, including the passion flower. While it is not a significant agricultural pest, it does sometimes eat corn, coffee, bananas and mangos.[10]
Two-thirds to three-quarters of each day is spent foraging for food. It has difficulty finding its desired food late in the wet season, when fewer arthropods are available to eat.[5]
Communication
The Central American Squirrel Monkey is noisy. It makes many squeals, whistles and chirps.[5] It also travels through the forest noisily, disturbing vegetation as it moves through.[5] Its has four main calls, which have been described as a "smooth chuck", a "bent mask chuck", a "peep" and a "twitter".[4]
Predators
Predators of the Central American Squirrel Monkey include bird of prey, cats and snakes. Constricting and venomous snakes both prey on squirrel monkeys. Raptors are particularly effective predators of Central American Squirrel Monkeys.[6] The oldest males bear most of the responsibility for detecting predators.[10] When a Central American Squirrel Monkey detects a raptor, it gives a high-pitched alarm peep and dives for cover. All other squirrel monkeys that hear the alarm call also dive for cover. The monkeys are particularly cautious about raptors, and give alarms and dive for cover when they detect any raptor-like object, including small airplanes and even falling branches and large leaves.[14]
Predator detection by the males becomes particularly important during the period when the infants are born. Raptors spend significantly more time near the squirrel monkey troops during this period, and prey on a significant number of the newborn infants. Other animals that prey on Central American Squirrel Monkey infants include toucans, tayras, opossums, coatis, snakes, and even spider monkeys.[14]
Reproduction
The breeding season for the Central American Squirrel Monkey is in September.[10] All females come into estrus at virtually the same time. A month or two before the breeding season begins, males become larger. This is not due to extra muscle, but to altered water balance within the male's body. This is caused by conversion of the male hormone testosterone into estrogen; thus the more testosterone a male produces, the more he grows in advance of the breeding season. Since males within a group have not been observed fighting over access to females during breeding season, nor attempting to force females to copulate with them, it is believed that female choice determines which males get to breed with females. Females tend to prefer the males that expand the most in advance of breeding season. This may be because the most enlarged males are generally the oldest and the most effective at detecting predators, or it may be a case of runaway intersexual selection.[14]
Males sometimes leave their group for short periods of time during the breeding season in order to try to mate with females from neighboring groups. Females are receptive to males from other groups, although resident males attempt to repel the intruders. The gestation period is six months, and the infants are born within a single week during February and March. Typically, a single infant is born.[10][6][14]
The infant remains dependent on its mother for about one year.[10] However, only 50% of infants survive more than six months, largely due to predation by birds.[6] Females give birth every 12 months, so the prior infant becomes independent at about the same time the new infant is born. Females become sexually mature at 2½ years old, while males become sexually mature at between 4 and 5 years old.[6] The females leave their natal group upon reaching sexual maturity, while males usually remain with their group for their entire lives. This is different from South American squirrel monkey species, where either males disperse from their natal group or both sexes disperse.[6] Males of the same age tend to associate with each other in age cohorts. If upon reaching sexual maturity, an age cohort may choose to leave the group and attempt to oust the males from another group in order to attain increased reproductive opportunities.[6]
The lifespan of the Central American Squirrel Monkey in the wild is unknown, but captive specimens have been know to live more than 15 years.[10] Other squirrel monkey species are known to be able to live more than 20 years.[6]
Status
It was once believed that the Central American Squirrel Monkey was just a population of a South American species of squirrel monkey brought to Central America by humans. Evidence for this theory included the very small range of the Central American Squirrel Monkey and the large gap from the range of any other squirrel monkey species. A study of nuclear and mitochondrial DNA demonstrated that the Central American Squirrel Monkey is indeed a separate species that apparently diverged from the South American species long ago - at least 260,000 years ago and possibly more than 4 million years ago.[3]
One popular theory is that squirrel monkeys did live in Columbia during the late Miocene or Pliocene and these squirrel monkeys migrated to Central America, becoming the ancestors of the current Central American species. According to this theory, the Guatemalan Black Howler migrated to Central America around the same time. Passage through the isthmus of Panama later closed due to rising oceans, and eventually opened up to another wave of migration about 2 million years ago. These later migrants, ancestors to modern populations of White-headed Capuchins, Mantled Howlers and Geoffroy's Spider Monkeys, out-competed the earlier migrants, leading to the small range of the Central American Squirrel Monkey and Guatemalan Black Howler.[17]
The population density has been estimated at 36 monkeys per kilometer in Costa Rica and 130 monkeys per kilometer in Panama.[13] It has been estimated that the population of the Central American Squirrel Monkey has been reduced from about 200,000 in the 1970s to less than 5000.[11] This is believed to be largely due to deforestation, hunting, and capture for the pet trade.[11] There are significant efforts within Costa Rica to try to preserve this monkey from extinction.[18] A reforestation project within Panama tries to preserve the vanishing population of the Chiriqui Province.[19]
As of 2008, the Central American Squirrel Monkey is listed as "vulnerable" from a conservation standpoint by the IUCN. This is due to the fact that its range encompasses just 8,000 square kilometers, its range is fragmented, and it suffers from ongoing habitat loss. This assessment is an improvement from the 2003 assessment, in which the Central American Squirrel Monkey was listed as "endangered".[2]
Taxonomy
The Central American Squirrel Monkey is a member of the family Cebidae, the family of New World monkeys containing capuchin monkeys, squirrel monkeys, tamarins and marmosets. Within the family Cebidae, it is a member of the subfamily Saimiriinae, the subfamily containing squirrel monkeys.[20] It is one of five recognized species of squirrel monkey, and the only species occurring outside South America.[6] The Central American Squirrel Monkey is placed in genus Saimiri (Voigt, 1831) along with all the other squirrel monkey species.
There are two subspecies of the Central American Squirrel Monkey:[1]
- Black-crowned Central American Squirrel Monkey, Saimiri oerstedii oerstedii
- Grey-crowned Central American Squirrel Monkey, Saimiri oerstedii citrinellus
S. o. oerstadii lives in the western Pacific portion of Panama and the Osa Peninsula area of Costa Rica (including Corcovado National Park), while S. o. citrinellus lives in the Central Pacific portion of Costa Rica. It has been estimated (most recently in 2003) that the remaining wild population of S. o. citrinellus is only 1300 to 1800 individuals.[2]
References
- ^ a b Groves, C. P. (2005). Wilson, D. E.; Reeder, D. M. (eds.). Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 138–139. ISBN 0-801-88221-4. OCLC 62265494.
- ^ a b c d e f g Template:IUCN2008
- ^ a b c Rylands, A., Groves, C., Mittenmeier, R., Cortes-Ortiz, L. & Hines, J. (2006). "Taxonomy and Distributions of Mesoamerican Primates". In Estrada, A., Garber, P., Pavelka, M. & Luecke, L. (ed.). New Perspectives in the Study of Mesoamerican Primates. New York: Springer. pp. 37–39. ISBN 978-0-387-25854-6.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ a b c d e Rowe, N. (1996). The Pictorial Guide to the Living Primates. Pogonias Press. p. 98. ISBN 0-9648825-0-7.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Emmons, L. (1997). Neotropical Rainforest Mammals A Field Guide (Second Edition ed.). The University of Chicago Press. pp. 126–127. ISBN 0-226-20721-8.
{{cite book}}:|edition=has extra text (help) - ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Jack, K. (2007). "The Cebines". In Campbell, C., Fuentes, A., MacKinnon, K., Panger, M., & Bearder, S. (ed.). Primates in Perspective. The Oxford University Press. pp. 107–120. ISBN 978-0-19-517133-4.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link) - ^ "Squirrel Monkey". Rainforest Alliance. Retrieved 2008-10-18.
- ^ Sussman, R. (2003). Primate Ecology and Social Structure Volume 2: New World Monkeys (Revised First Edition ed.). Pearson Custom Publishing. p. 76. ISBN 0-536-74364-9.
{{cite book}}:|edition=has extra text (help) - ^ a b Fleagle, J. (1998). Primate Adaption and Evolution (Second Edition ed.). Academic Press. p. 157–160. ISBN 0122603419.
{{cite book}}:|edition=has extra text (help) - ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Wainwright, M. (2002). The Natural History of Costa Rican Mammals. Zona Tropical. pp. 131–134. ISBN 0-9705678-1-2.
- ^ a b c Hunter, L., Andrew, D. (2002). Watching Wildlife Central America. Lonely Planet Publications. p. 148. ISBN 1-86450-034-4.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Hunter, L., Andrew, D. (2002). Watching Wildlife Central America. Lonely Planet Publications. p. 100. ISBN 1-86450-034-4.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ a b Sussman, R. (2003). Primate Ecology and Social Structure Volume 2: New World Monkeys (Revised First Edition ed.). Pearson Custom Publishing. p. 86. ISBN 0-536-74364-9.
{{cite book}}:|edition=has extra text (help) - ^ a b c d e f g h Boinski, S. (1992). "Monkeys with Inflated Sex Appeal". In Ciochon, R. & Nisbett, R. (ed.). The Primate Anthology. Prentice-Hall. pp. 174–179. ISBN 0-13-613845-4.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link) - ^ Boinski, S. (2000). "Social Manipulation Within and Between Troops Mediates Primate Group Movement". In Boinski, S. and Garber, P. (ed.). On the Move. The University of Chicago Press. pp. 447–448. ISBN 0-226-06340-2.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link) - ^ Boinski, S. (April, 1989). "Why don't Saimiri oerstedii and Cebus capucinus form mixed-species groups?". International Journal of Primatology. 10 (2): 103–114. doi:10.1007/BF02736248.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=(help)CS1 maint: date and year (link) - ^ Ford, S. (2006). "The Biographic History of Mesoamerican Primates". In Estrada, A.; Garber, P.A.; Pavelka, M.S.M.; Luecke, L. (ed.). New Perspectives in the Study of Mesoamerican Primates. New York: Springer. pp. 100–107. ISBN 978-0-387-25854-6.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link) - ^ "Save the Mono Titi Manuel Antonio Costa Rica". ASCOMOTI. Retrieved 2008-05-12.
- ^ "The Rainforest Returns". Saimiri Wildlife. Retrieved 2008-10-25.
- ^ Groves, C. P. (2005). Wilson, D. E.; Reeder, D. M. (eds.). Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. Saimiriinae. ISBN 0-801-88221-4. OCLC 62265494.
External links
- ARKive - images and movies of the red-backed squirrel monkey (Saimiri oerstedii)
- ASCOMOTI Foundation for Preservation of the Central American Squirrel Monkey (mono titi)
- Infonatura
- Saimiri Wildlife