Carmen

This article is about the opera. For other uses, see Carmen (disambiguation).

Template:Bizet operas Carmen is a French opéra comique by Georges Bizet. The libretto is by Henri Meilhac and Ludovic Halévy, based on the novella of the same title by Prosper Mérimée, first published in 1845, itself possibly influenced by the narrative poem The Gypsies (1824) by Alexander Pushkin. Mérimée had read the poem in Russian by 1840 and translated it into French in 1852.

The opera premiered at the Opéra-Comique of Paris on 3 March 1875, but its opening run was denounced by the majority of critics. It was almost withdrawn after its fourth or fifth performance, and although this was avoided, ultimately having 48 performances in its first run, it did little to bolster sagging receipts at the Opéra-Comique. Near the end of this run, the theatre was giving tickets away in order to stimulate attendance. Bizet died of a heart attack, aged 36, on 3 June 1875, never knowing how popular Carmen would become. In October 1875 it was produced in Vienna, to critical and popular success, which began its path to worldwide popularity. It was not staged again at the Opéra Comique until 1883.

Bizet's final opera not only transformed the opéra comique genre that had been static for half a century, it virtually killed it. Within a few years, the traditional distinction between opera (serious, heroic and declamatory) and opéra comique (light-hearted, bourgeois and conversational with spoken dialogue) disappeared. Moreover, Carmen nourished a movement that was to win both celebrity and notoriety first in Italy and then elsewhere: the cult of realism known as verismo.

The early death of Bizet, and the negligence of his immediate heirs and publisher led, as with most of Bizet's operas, to major textual problems for which scholars and performers only began to find solutions in the 1960s.

The story is set in Seville, Spain, around 1820, and concerns the eponymous Carmen, a beautiful gypsy with a fiery temper. Free with her love, she woos the corporal Don José, an inexperienced soldier. Their relationship leads to his rejection of his former love, mutiny against his superior, and joining a gang of smugglers. After she leaves him for the bullfighter Escamillo, Don José murders Carmen out of jealousy.

Background

Prosper Mérimée, whose novella Carmen of 1845 inspired the opera

In 1860 Bizet returned to Paris from Rome, where he had spent nearly three years as a Prix de Rome laureate. He was determined to build his career through the composition of opera, in which genre he had experimented with Don Procopio (1859), a short opera buffa in the manner of Donizetti. However, the 1860s were to prove a decade of considerable frustration for the young composer, who struggled with limited success to establish his reputation in the world of Parisian opera. The conservatism of the city's two state-funded opera houses, the Opéra and the Opéra-Comique, meant that few new works were performed there; even established composers such as Charles Gounod were rarely welcomed. Bizet's stage successes were few and modest; his good relationship with Léon Carvalho, manager of the independent Théâtre Lyrique company, enabled him to bring to the stage his first full-scale operas, Les pêcheurs de perles (1863) and La jolie fille de Perth (1867), but neither enjoyed much public acclaim. Although Bizet was busy and productive during these years, he earned his livelihood primarily as a teacher and as an arranger and transcriber of the music of others.

Artistic life in the capital during 1870 and 1871 was severely disrupted by the Franco-Prussian War and its immediate consequence, the Paris Commune. When a semblance of normality resumed in the summer of 1871, Bizet found that some of the former barriers against him had been lifted. He accepted a chorus-master's appointment at the Opéra, only to resign on a point of principle before beginning his duties. More promisingly, his one-act opera, Djamileh opened at the Opéra-Comique in May 1872. An incompetent production ensured that it fared poorly and closed after 11 performances. Notwithstanding this failure, the following month Bizet was able to inform his friend Edmond Galabert that the Opéra-Comique had requested him to compose a three-act opera based on a libretto by Henri Meilhac and Ludovic Halévy. The latter, a cousin of Bizet's wife Geneviève, had co-written the libretto for Bizet's one-act student opera Le docteur Miracle (1856); he and Meilhac had subsequently become famous for providing the texts of many of Jacques Offenbach's operettas.

The new project came at a busy time for Bizet. Carvalho had commissioned him to write incidental music for Alphonse Daudet's play L'Arlésienne, and he thought that he might even asked to write something for the Opéra. Nevertheless Bizet was delighted with the Opéra-Comique commission, and expressed to Galabert his satisfaction in "the absolute certainty of having found my path". A subject for the Opéra-Comique project had to be agreed; Adolphe de Leuven, the theatre's joint director, suggested several scenarios, the most favoured of which was entitled L'Oiseau bleu ("The Bluebird"). However, the writers eventually agreed on a suggestion made by Bizet, an adaptation of Prosper Mérimée's 1845 novella Carmen.

Roles

Galli-Marié as Carmen

Role	Voice type	Premiere cast, 3 March 1875 (Conductor: Adolphe Deloffre)
Carmen, A Gypsy Girl	mezzo-soprano	Célestine Galli-Marié
Don José, Corporal of Dragoons	tenor	Paul Lhérie
Escamillo, Toreador	bass-baritone	Jacques Bouhy
Micaëla, A Village Maiden	soprano	Marguérite Chapuy
Zuniga, Lieutenant of Dragoons	bass	Eugène Dufriche
Moralès, Corporal of Dragoons	baritone	Edmond Duvernoy
Frasquita, Companion of Carmen	soprano	Alice Ducasse
Mercédès, Companion of Carmen	mezzo-soprano	Esther Chevalier
Lillas Pastia, an innkeeper	spoken	M. Nathan
Le Dancaïre, smuggler	baritone	Pierre-Armand Potel
Le Remendado, smuggler	tenor	Barnolt
A guide	spoken	M. Teste
Chorus: Soldiers, young men, cigarette factory girls, Escamillo's supporters, Gypsies, merchants and orange sellers, police, bullfighters, people, urchins.

Synopsis

Place: Seville, Spain, and surrounding hills

Time: Around 1820

Act 1

Outside a cigarette factory, adjoining a military guardhouse

A group of soldiers relaxes outside the guardhouse, watching and commenting on passers-by ("Sur la place, chacun passe"). Micaëla appears, seeking José; Moralès tells her José is not yet on duty, and suggests she waits with them. She departs quickly, saying she will return later. José arrives with the new guard, which is followed and imitated by a crowd of urchins ("Avec la garde montante").

As the factory bell rings the cigarette girls emerge, greeted by young men who exchange banter with them ("La cloche a sonné"). Carmen appears, and sings in the habanera ("L'amour est un oiseau rebelle") of the untameable nature of love. They plead with her to choose one of them as a lover; in response she throws a flower to Don José, who thus far has been ignoring her. She then goes back into the factory with the others.

Micaëla returns and gives José a letter from his mother ("Parle-moi de ma mère!"). From this he learns that his mother wants him to return home and marry Micaëla, who runs off in embarrassment. As José declares that he will heed his mother's wishes, screams are heard from the factory and the women emerge in great agitation. Zuniga, the officer in charge of the guard, learns that Carmen has attacked a woman with a knife; when challenged, Carmen answers with mocking defiance ("Tra la la"); Zuniga orders José to tie her hands while he prepares the prison warrant. Alone with José, Carmen beguiles him with a seguidilla ("Près des remparts de Séville"), in which she foresees a night with him, dancing and lovemaking in in Lillas Pastia's tavern. Captivated, José agrees to free her hands, at which she escapes from him and slips away. When Zuniga returns, José is arrested.

Act 2

Lillas Pastia's inn

A month later, in the tavern, Carmen and her friends Frasquita and Mercédès are entertaining Zuniga and other officers ("Les tringles des sistres tintaient"). Zuniga tells Carmen that José has been released after serving a month's detention. Outside a chorus and procession announces the arrival of the toreador Escamillo ("Vivat, vivat le Toréro"). He introduces himself with his signature "Toreador song" ("Votre toast, je peux vous le rendre"), and sets his sights on Carmen who brushes him aside. Lillas Pastia hustles the crowds and the soldiers away.

When only Carmen, Frasquita and Mercédès remain, the smugglers Dancaïre and Remendado arrive and reveal their plans to dispose of their recently-acquired contraband ("Nous avons en tête une affaire"). Frasquita and Mercédès are keen to help them, but Carmen refuses as she wishes to wait for José. After the smugglers leave, José arrives; Carmen treats him to a private exotic dance ("Je vais danser en votre honneur ... Lalala"), but is interrupted by a distant bugle call from the barracks. When José says he must return to duty she mocks him; he answers by showing her the flower that she threw to him ("La fleur que tu m'avais jetée"). Unconvinced, Carmen demands he shows his love by leaving with her. José refuses to desert, but as he prepares to go Zuniga enters, looking for Carmen. He and José fight, and are separated by the returning smuuglers who restrain Zuniga. Having attacked a superior officer, José now has no choice but to join Carmen and the smugglers ("Suis-nous à travers la campagne").

Act 3

The smuggler's hideout in the hills

Carmen and José enter with the smugglers and their booty ("Écoute, écoute, compagnons"); Carmen has now become bored with José, and tells him scornfully to go back to his mother. Frasquita, Mercédès and Carmen read the cards which foretell death for Carmen and José. At the smugglers' request the girls depart to charm the customs officers who are watching the locality, while José is sent to guard the contraband.

Micaëla enters with a guide, seeking José and determined to rescue him from Carmen ("Je dis que rien ne m'épouvante"). On hearing a gunshot she hides in fear; it is José, who has fired at an intruder who proves to be Escamillo. José's pleasure at meeting the bullfighter turns to anger when Escamillo confesses his infatuation with Carmen. The pair fight, but are interrupted by the returning smugglers and girls ("Holà, holà José"). As Escamillo leaves he invites everyone to his next bullfight in Seville. Micaëla is discovered; at first, José will not leave with her despite Carmen's mockery, but he agrees to go when told that his mother is dying. As he leaves, promising to return, Escamillo is heard singing in the distance.

Act 4

Outside the bull-fighting arena

Zuniga, Frasquita and Mercédès are among the crowd awaiting the arrival of the bullfighters. Escamillo enters with Carmen, and they express their mutual love ("Si tu m'aimes, Carmen"). As Escamillo goes into the arena Frasquita warns Carmen that José is nearby . The others depart; alone, Carmen is confronted by the desperate José ("C'est toi? C'est moi!"). While he pleads vainly for her to return to him, cheers are heard from the arena. As José makes his last entreaty, Carmen contemptuously throws down the ring he gave her. He then stabs her, and as Escamillo is acclaimed in the ring, Carmen dies. In despair beside her, José kneels and sings "Ah! Carmen! ma Carmen adorée!", as the crowds flock from the arena to find him confessing to the murder of the woman he loved.

Creation

Writing history

Pencil sketch of Ludovic Halévy, who with Henri Meilhac wrote the libretto for Carmen

There is no clear indication of when work began on Carmen. Bizet and the two librettists were all in Paris during 1873 and easily able to meet, so there is little written record or correspondence relating to the beginning of the collaboration. The libretto was prepared in accordance with the conventions of opéra comique, with dialogue separating musical numbers. Meilhac and Halévy were a long-standing duo with an established division of labour; Meilhac, who was completely unmusical, wrote the dialogue and Halévy the verses. The libretto deviates from Mérimée's novella in a number of important respects. In the original, events are spread over a much longer period of time; the main story is narrated by José from his prison cell, as he awaits execution for Carmen's murder. Micaëla does not feature in Mérimée's version, and the Escamillo character is peripheral—a picador named Luca435s who is only briefly Carmen's grand passion. Carmen has a husband called Garcia, whom José kills during a quarrel. The most significant changes introduced into the opera are in the much more sympathetic depictions of the two leading characters, Carmen and José. In her account of Bizet's life and music, Mina Curtiss comments that within the confines of the theatrical stage, Mérimée's Carmen would have seemed "an unmitigated and unconvincing monster, had her character not been simplified and deepened."

Under the impression that rehearsals were to begin in October 1873, Bizet began composing in or around January 1873, and by the summer he had completed the music for the first act and perhaps sketched more. At that point, according to Bizet's biographer Winton Dean, "some hitch at the Opéra-Comique intervened", and the project was in suspense for a while. One reason for the delay may have been the difficulties in finding a singer for the title role. Another was a split that developed between the joint directors of the theatre, Camille du Locle and Adolphe de Leuven, over the advisability of staging the work. De Leuven had vociferously opposed the entire notion of a story in which a gypsy woman is murdered by her lover being presented at "a family theatre! The theatre where marriages are arranged! ... You will frighten off our audience—it's impossible!" He was given assurances that the story would be toned down, that Carmen 's character would be softened, and offset by Micaëla, "a very innocent, very chaste young girl". Furthermore, the gypsies would be presented as comic characters, and Carmen's death would be overshadowed at the end by "triumphal processions, ballets and joyous fanfares". De Leuven reluctantly agreed, but his continuing hostility to the project led to his resignation from the theatre early in 1874.

The various delays enabled Bizet to work on his other commissions, and to supervise preparations for a revival of Gounod's Roméo et Juliette at the Opéra-Comique. He appears to have resumed work on Carmen early in 1874; in the summer, which he spent at the artists' colony at Bougival, just ouside Paris, he completed the composition—1,200 pages of music. He was pleased with the result, informing a friend: "I have written a work that is all clarity and vivacity, full of colour and melody". During the period of rehearsals which began in the autumn, Bizet repeatedly altered the music—sometimes at the request of the orchestra who found some of it impossible to perform, sometimes to meet the demands of individual singers, and otherwise in response to the demands of the theatre's management. The vocal score that Bizet published in March 1875 shows significant changes from the version of the score that he sold to the publishers, Choudens, in January 1875; the conducting score used at the premiere diverges from each of these documents. There is no definitive edition, and there are differences among musicologists about which version represents the composer's true intentions. Bizet also effected changes to the libretto; at the behest of his leading singer he replaced Halévy's original words to Carmen's Act 1 habanera with his own. He also rewrote the text of Carmen's solo in the Act 3 card scene, and provided a new first line for the Act 2 seguidilla.

Characterisation

In his biographical sketch of Bizet, Hugh Macdonald describes the framework of Carmen as broadly that of traditional opéra comique. Unusually, the characters are drawn from proletarian life but most of them, including the soldiers, the smugglers and the secondary leads Micaëla and Escamillo, are familiar types within the genre. The exceptions are the two principals, José and Carmen, for while each is presented quite differently from Mérimée's portrayals of a murderous brigand and a treacherous, amoral schemer, even in their relatively sanitised forms neither is compatible with the norms of opéra comique. Rather they are early representatives of the verismo style that was later to find its fullest expression in the works of Puccini.

Dean suggests that José is the central figure of the opera: "It is his fate rather than Carmen's that interests us". Bizet's music characterises his gradual decline, act by act, from honest soldier to deserter, vagabond and finally murderer. In Act 1 he is a simple countryman aligned musically with Micaëla; in Act 2 he evinces a greater toughness, the result of his experiences as a prisoner, but we also observe the extent to which his infatuation with Carmen has driven his emotions beyond his control. Dean likens his situation in Act 3 to that of a trapped animal who refuses to leave his cage even when the door is opened for him, conflicted by a deadly mix of conscience, jealousy and despair. In the final act he has become a fatalist; "He will make one more appeal; if Carmen refuses he knows what to do". His music assumes a grimness and purposefulness that reflects this new hardness of heart.

Carmen's character changes little throughout the opera, and receives, says Dean, "a complete musical representation". Her capriciousness, fearlessness and love of freedom are all present in her music: "She is redeemed from any suspicion of vulgarity by her qualities of courage and fatalism so vividly realised in the music". Curtiss suggests that Carmen's character, spiritually and musically, is a realisation of the composer's own unconscious longing for a freedom denied to him by his stifling marriage. Harold Schonberg likens Carmen to "a female Don Giovanni. She would rather die than be false to herself". Bizet was reportedly contemptuous of the music that he wrote for Escamillo: "Well, they asked for ordure, and they've got it", he is said to have remarked about the Toreador's song—but, as Dean comments, "the triteness lies in the character, not in the music. Micaëla's music has been criticised for its "Gounodesque" elements, although Dean maintains that her music has greater vitality than that of any of Gounod's own heroines.

The two main roles each present formidable problems for singers. In the case of Carmen, the dramatic personality of the character, and the range of moods she is required to express, call for exceptional acting as well as singing talents such as to have deterred some of opera's most distinguished exponents. Even Maria Callas, though she recorded the part, never performed it on stage.

Performance history

Assembling the cast

The search for a singer-actress to play Carmen began in the summer of 1873. Press speculation favoured Zulma Bouffar, who was perhaps the librettists' preferred choice. She had sung leading roles in many of Offenbach's operas, but she was unacceptable to Bizet and was turned down by du Locle as unsuitable. In September an approach was made to Marie Roze, well known for previous triumphs at the Opéra-Comique, the Opéra and in London. She refused the part when she learned that she would be required to die on stage. The role was then offered to Galli-Marié, who negotiated with du Locle for several months before agreeing terms on 18 December: 2500 francs per month for twelve performances a month. Galli-Marié, a demanding and at times tempestuous performer, would prove a staunch ally of Bizet's, supporting his resistance to demands from the management that the more outré elements of her part be removed. It was generally believed that she and the composer were conducting an affair during the stormy months of rehearsal.

The leading tenor part of Don José was given to Paul Lhérie, a rising star of the Opéra-Comique who had recently appeared in works by Massenet and Delibes. He would later become a baritone, and in 1887 sang the role of Zurga in the Covent Garden premiere of Les pêcheurs de perles. Jacques Bouhy, engaged to sing Escamillo, was a young Belgian-born baritone who had already appeared in demanding roles such as Méphistophélès in Gounod's Faust and as Mozart's Figaro. Marguerite Chapuy, who sang Micaëla, was at the beginning of a short career in which she was briefly a star at London's Drury Lane theatre; the impresario James H. Mapleson thought her "one of the most charming vocalists it has been my pleasure to know". However, she married and left the stage altogether in 1876, refusing Mapleson's considerable cash inducements to return.

Premiere and initial run

A lithograph of Carmen Act 1

Because rehearsals did not start until October 1874 and lasted longer than anticipated, the premiere was delayed. The final rehearsals had proceeded well, and in a generally optimistic mood the first night was fixed for 3 March, the day on which, coincidentally, Bizet's appointment as a Chevalier of the Legion of Honour was announced. The premiere, which was conducted by Adolphe Deloffre, was attended by many of Paris's leading musical figures, including Massenet, Offenbach, Delibes and Gounod; during the performance the last-named was overheard complaining bitterly that Bizet had stolen the music of Micaëla's Act 3 aria from him: "That melody is mine!". Halévy recorded his impressions of the premiere in a letter to a friend; the first act was evidently well-received, with applause for the main numbers and numerous curtain calls. The first part of Act 2 also went well, but after the Toreador's song there was, Halévy noted, "coldness". In Act 3 only Micaëla's aria earned applause as the audience became increasingly disconcerted with the work. The final act was "glacial from first to last", and Bizet was left only with the consolations of a few friends. The critic Ernest Newman wrote later that the sentimentalist Opéra-Comique audience was "shocked by the drastic realism of the action" and by the low standing and defective morality of most of the characters. According to the composer Benjamin Godard, Bizet retorted, in response to a compliment, "Don't you see that all these bourgeois have not understood a wretched word of the work I have written for them?". However, shortly after the work had concluded, Massenet sent Bizet a congratulatory note: "How happy you must be at this time—its a great success!".

The general tone of the next day's press notices ranged from disappointment to outrage. There was consternation that the heroine was an amoral seductress rather than a woman of virtue; Galli-Marié's interpretation of the role was described by one critic as "the very incarnation of vice". Others compared the work unfavourably with the traditional Opéra-Comique repertoire of Auber and Boieldieu. Léon Escudier in L'Art Musical called Carmen's music "dull and obscure ... the ear grows weary of waiting for the cadence that never comes". It seemed that Bizet had generally failed to fulfil expectations, both of those who (given Halévy's and Meilhac's past associations) had expected something in the Offenbach mould, and of crtics such as Adolphe Jullien who had anticipated a Wagnerian music drama. Among the few supportive critics was the poet Théodore de Banville; writing in Le National, he applauded Bizet for presenting a drama with real men and women instead of the usual Opéra-Comique "puppets".

In its initial run at the Opéra-Comique, Carmen provoked little public enthusiasm; it shared the theatre for a while with the much more popular Verdi's Requiem. Carmen was often performed to half-empty houses, even when the management gave away large numbers of tickets. Early on 3 June, the day after the opera's 33rd performance, Bizet died suddenly at the age of 36. That night's performance was cancelled; the tragic circumstances brought a temporary increase in public interest during the brief period before the season ended. Du Locle revived Carmen in November 1875, with the original cast, and it ran intermittently until 15 February 1876 to give a year's total of 48 performances for the original production. Among those who attended one of these later performance was Tchaikovsky, who wrote to his mentor, Nadezhda von Meck: "Carmen is a masterpiece in every sense of the word ... one of those rare creations which expresses the efforts of a whole musical epoch". After the final performance, Carmen was not seen in Paris again until 1883.

Early revivals

Many distinguished artistes sang the role of Carmen in early productions of the opera.

Shortly before his death Bizet had signed a contract for a production of Carmen by the Vienna Court Opera. For this version, which was first staged on 23 October 1875, Bizet's friend Ernest Guiraud replaced the original dialogue with recitatives, to create a "grand opera" format. Guiraud also reorchestrated music from Bizet's L'Arlésienne suite to provide a spectacular ballet. In the event the Court Opera's director Franz von Jauner chose to use a mixture of dialogue and recitative; Giraud's full recitative version, or Jauner's hybrid, became the norms for productions of the opera outside France for most of the next century. Despite its deviations from Bizet's original and some critical reservations, the 1875 Vienna production was a great success with the Viennese public, and won praise from both Wagner and Brahms—the latter reportedly saw the opera 20 times, and said that he would have "gone to the ends of the earth to embrace Bizet".

The Viennese success was the springboard towards the opera's rapid ascent towards worldwide fame. In February 1876 it began a run in Brussels at La Monnaie; it returned there the following year, with Galli-Marié in the title role, and thereafter became a permanent fixture in the Brussels repertory. On 17 June 1878 Carmen was produced in London, at Her Majesty's Theatre, where Minnie Hauk began her long association with the part of Carmen. A parallel London production at Covent Garden, with Adelina Patti, was cancelled when Patti withdrew. The highly successful Her Majesy's production, sung in Italian, was then taken to Dublin where its reception was equally enthusiastic. On 23 October 1878 the opera received its American premiere, at the New York Academy of Music, and in the same year was introduced to St. Petersburg.

In the following five years performances were given in numerous American and European cities, the opera finding particular favour in Germany, where Chancellor Otto von Bismarck apparently saw it on 27 different occasions and where Friedrich Nietzsche opined that he "became a better man when Bizet speaks to me". Carmen was also acclaimed in numerous French provincial cities including Marseilles, Lyons and, in 1881, Dieppe where Galli-Marié returned to the role. But the new management of the Opéra-Comique–du Locle had been replaced in 1876 by Léon Carvalho—refused to reinstate the opera in its original home, on the grounds that that the work was immoral. Meilhac and Hálevy were more prepared to countenance a revival, provided that Galli-Marié had no part in it; they blamed her interpretation for the relative failure of the opening run.

In April 1883 Carvalho succumbed to pressure and revived Carmen at the Opéra-Comique, with Adèle Isaac featuring in underprepared and toned-down production. Carvalho was roundly condemned by the critics for offering a travesty of what was now becoming regarded as a masterpiece of French opera; nevertheless, it was acclaimed by the public and played to full houses. In October Carvalho yielded to pressure and revised the production; he brought back Galli-Marié, and restored the score and libretto to their 1875 forms. Since then the work has been a permanent feature of the Opéra-Comique's repertory.

Worldwide success

On 9 January 1884, with Zelia Trebelli in the title role, Carmen was given its first New York Metropolitan Opera performance, to a mixed critical reception. The New York Times welcomed Bizet's "pretty and effective work", but compared Trabelli's interpretation unfavourably with Minnie Hauk's. Nevertheless, Carmen was quickly incorporated into the Met's repertory and was regularly performed by the company, both in New York and on tour. In February 1906 Enrico Caruso made his Met debut as José; he continued to perform in this role until 1919, two years before his death. On 17 April 1906, he sang the role at San Francisco's opera house. Afterwards he waited up to read the reviews in the early editions of the following day's papers, before going to bed at around 3 am. Two hours later he was awakened by the first violent shocks of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, after which he and his co-singers made a hurried escape from the Palace Hotel. Caruso made numerous pencil sketches of the devastation before he and the company were rescued.

WPA production in Los Angeles (ca. 1939)

The popularity of Carmen continued through succeeding generations of American opera-goers; by the beginning of 2011 the Met alone had performed it almost a thousand times. It enjoyed similar success in other American cities and in all parts of the world, in many different languages. Most of the productions outside France followed the example created in Vienna and incorporated lavish ballet interludes and other spectacles, a practice which Mahler abandoned in Vienna when he revived the work there in 1900. However, in 1919 Bizet's then-aged contemporary Camille Saint-Saens was still complaining about the "strange idea" of adding a ballet, which he considered "a hideous blemish in that masterpiece" and wondered why Bizet's widow, at that time still living, permitted it.

At the Opéra-Comique Carmen was always presented in the dialogue version (slightly shortened from the original), with minimal musical embellishment of Bizet' score. By 1888, the year of the 50th anniversary of the composer's birth, the opera had been performed there 330 times;, when his centenary was celebrated in 1938, the total of performances at the theatre had reached 2,271. Dean has commented on the dramatic distortions that arise from the suppression of the dialogue; the effect, he says, is that the action moves forward "in a series of jerks, rather instead of by smooth transition", and that most of the minor characters are substantially diminished. However, outside France the practice of using recitatives has persisted; the Carl Rosa Opera Company's 1947 London production, and Walter Felsenstein's 1949 staging at the Berlin Komische Oper, are among the first recorded instances in which the dialogue version was used other than in France. Neither of these innovations led to much immediate changes in practice; a similar experiment was tried at Covent Garden in 1953 but hurriedly withdrawn, and the first American production with spoken dialogue, in Colorado on 1953, met with a similar fate.

Only much later in the 20th century did dialogue versions become common in opera houses outside France, but there is still no universally recognised full score. Fritz Oeser's 1964 edition is an attempt to fill this gap, but in Dean's view is unsatisfactory. Oeser reintroduces material removed by Bizet during the first rehearsals, and removes many of the late changes and improvements that the composer made immediately before the first performance; he thus, according to the analyst Susan McClary, "inadvertently preserves as definitive an early draft of the opera". Dean believes that the basis for any standard edition should be Bizet's vocal score of March 1875, published during his lifetime after he had personally corrected the proofs.

Music

In his survey of 19th century French opera, Hervé Lacombe suggests that Carmen is one of the few works from that large repertory to have stood the test of time. While acknowledging the work's orchestral inventiveness and dramatic power, Lacombe contends that it remains firmly part of the long opéra comique tradition; however, Macdonald writes that the work transcends the genre; its immortality is assured by "the combination in abundance of striking melody, deft harmony and perfectly judged orchestration". According to Dean, Bizet's principal achievement is to express the main action of the opera in the music, rather than in the dialogue: "Few artists have expressed so vividly the torments inflicted by sexual passions and jealousy". Dean maintains that Bizet's realism is in a different order from the verismo of Puccini and others; he likens the composer to Mozart and Verdi in his ability to engage his audiences with the emotions and sufferings of his characters.

Bizet had never visited Spain, but nonetheless sought to provide some Spanish authenticity in his music. Carmen's habanera is based on an idiomatic song, "El Arreglito", by the Spanish-American composer Sebastián Iradier (1809–65). Bizet had initially thought this to be a genuine folk melody; when he learned its recent origin he added a note crediting Iradier to the vocal score. He used a genuine folksong as the source of Carmen's song "Coupe-moi, brûle-moi", in which she defies Zuniga, and a song by Manuel García as the basis of the Act 4 prelude. Less directly, other parts of the score, notably the seguidilla, utilise the rhythms and instrumenation associated with flamenco music. However, Dean insists that "[t]his is a French, not a Spanish opera"; the "foreign bodies", while they undoubtedly contribute to the unique atmosphere of the opera, form only a small ingredient of the complete music.

The Act I prelude combines three themes, each of which recurs in the opera: the entry of the bullfighters from Act 3, the refrain from the Toreador's song from Act 2, and the motif that represents both Carmen herself and the fate that she personifies. This third element is sounded on clarinet, bassoon and cornet with cellos in the background, and concludes with disconcerting suddenness, on a crescendo. As the curtain rises the mood becomes light and pleasant, and continues in this vein through Micaëla's first scene. The serenity is briefly broken by the strident chorus of urchins attending the changing of the guard, but tranquility resumes until a phrase from the fate motif announces Carmen's entrance. After the provocative habanera, with its persistent and vaguely menacing rhythm, the motif sounds again when Carmen throws her flower to José. The congenial atmosphere returns when the factory women depart and Micaëla reappears and sings her duet with José, warmly accompanied by clarinet and strings. With he women's quarrel, Carmen's dramatic re-entry and her defiant interaction with the lieutenant, the mood changes yet again. After she beguiles José with the seguidilla, overriding his vocal objections and ending with a triumphant B major shout, her escape is effected to the strains of a fragment from the habanera.

After a short entr'acte, which prefigures a melody that José will sing later, a festive trio sung by Carmen, Frasquita and Mercedes leads to Escamillo's tumultuous entrance and his famous song in which brass and percussion provide prominent backing. This is followed by a Mozartian quintet, in which the three women are joined by two smugglers in a rondo that Newman describes as "of incomparable verve and musical wit". José appears, singing the entr'acte air. In the long mutual wooing scene follows, Carmen sings and dances while she plays the castanets. Then a muted reference to the fate motif, played on an English horn, introduces José's "flower aria", to which Carmen's seductive response presages a quarrel as José insists that he must return to duty. The arrival of Zuniga, the consequent fight and José's unavoidable ensnarement into the lawless life culminates musically in a triumphant hymn to freedom that closes the act.

The Act 3 prelude begins softly with music redolent of a warm and sensuous night. The tension between Carmen and José is evident in the orchestra; the light and lively music of the card scene changes to a threatening tone, with the fate motif prominent, as the cards foretell Carmen's coming death. The gentler mood associated with Micaëla returns as she enters in search of José, and sings her aria to the melody that Gounod claimed as his own. The middle part of the act is occupied by the interactions between Escamillo and José who now realise that they are rivals for Carmen's favour. The music reflects their contrasting attitudes: Escamillo remains, says Newman, "invincibly polite and ironic", while José is sullen and aggressive. When Micaëla reveals herself and pleads with José to go with her to his mother, Carmen shows her most unsympathetic side, illustrated by the harshness of her music. As José departs, vowing to return, the fate theme is heard briefly in the woodwind. The distant sound of Escamillo singing the Toreador's refrain as he leaves the mountains adds a note of conceited self-satisfaction to the finale, which contrasts with José.s increasing desperation.

The brief final act begins with an animated orchestral prelude which some musicologists have asserted is derived from Manuel Garcia's 1804 operetta El Criado Fingido. Others see few similarities between the two works. The act begins with the bullfighters' march, the crowd's greeting to Escamillo and his short love duet with Carmen. The long duet, in which José makes his final pleas to Carmen and is decisively rejected, is punctuated by triumphant off-stage roars from the bullfighting arena. The fate motif, which has been suggestively present throughout the scene, is heard in full fortissimo as José strikes the fatal blows; his last words of love and despair are followed by a final crashing chord after which the curtain falls without further musical or vocal comment.

Recordings and adaptations

Main article: Carmen discography

Carmen has been the subject of a very large number of recordings, beginning with a nearly complete performance in German from 1908 with Emmy Destinn in the title role, and the fuller 1911 Opéra-Comique recording in French. Since then, many of the leading opera houses and performers have recorded the work, in both studio and live performances. Over the years many versions have been highly praised and reissued. From the mid-1990s numerous video recordings have become available. These include David McVicar's Glyndebourne production of 2002, and the Royal Opera productions of 2007 and 2010, each designed by Francesca Zambello.

The character "Carmen" has been the constant subject of film treatment since the earliest days of cinema. Researchers at Newcastle University's Centre for Research into Film and Media have identified more than 70 films, including at least 40 silent features, which are based on the Carmen story. Many of these depart from the storyline in Mérimée's original, though all retain the broad themes of jealousy and thwarted tragic love.

The films range across many languages and cultures, and have been the work of prominent directors including Raoul Walsh, Otto Preminger and Jean-Luc Godard. Preminger's version, Carmen Jones (1954), was adapted from a Broadway musical of the same name first shown in 1943. The story is transposed to 1940s Chicago, and employs an all-black cast. Robert Townsend's 2001 film, Carmen: A Hip Hopera, starring Beyoncé Knowles, is a more recent attempt to create an Afro-American version. Francesco Rosi's highly praised film of 1984, with Julia Migenes and Plácido Domingo, is generally faithful to the original story and to Bizet's music.

See also

• Smuggling in fiction

References

Notes

Sources

• Azaola, Juan Ramon (ed.) (2003). A Season of Opera on DVD:, Part 4: Carmen. Madrid: Del Prado publishers. ISBN 84-9798-071-9. {{cite book}}: |first= has generic name (help)
• Batta, András (2000). Opera: Composers, Works, Performers. Cologne: Könemann. ISBN 3-8290-3571-3.
• Curtiss, Mina (1959). Bizet and his World. London: Secker & Warburg. OCLC 505162968.
• Dean, Winton (1965). Georges Bizet: His Life and Work. London: J.M. Dent & Sons Ltd. OCLC 643867230.
• Dean, Winton (1980). "Bizet, Georges (Alexandre César Léopold)". In Sadie, Stanley (ed.) (ed.). New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. Vol. 2. London: Macmillan. ISBN 0-333-23111-2. {{cite book}}: |editor-first= has generic name (help)
• Dibbern, Mary (2000). Carmen: A Performance Guide. Pendragon Press. ISBN 1-57647-032-6.
• Forbes, Elizabeth (1992). "Carmen". In Sadie, Stanley (ed.). The New Grove Dictionary of Opera. Macmillan.
• McClary, Susan (1992). George Bizet: Carmen. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-39897-5.
• Nietzsche, Friederich (1911). The Case Of Wagner. London and Edinburgh: T.N. Foulis. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
• Newman, Ernest (1958). Great Operas Volume 1. New York: Vintage Books.
• Schonberg, Harold C. (1975). The Lives of the Great Composers: Volume 2. London: Futura Publications Ltd. ISBN 0-8600-7723-3.
• Steen, Michael (2003). The Life and Times of the Great Composers. London: Icon Books. ISBN 978-1840466-79-9.
• Tanner, Michael (1999). "Words and Music". In Robert Ainsley (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Classical Music. Carlton. ISBN 1-85868-628-8.
• Weinstock, Herbert (1946). Tchaikovsky. London: Cassel.
• Winchester, Simon (2005). A Crack in the Edge of the World. London: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-101634-5.

External links

• Full libretto Vo / En
• Free scores by Carmen at the International Music Score Library Project (IMSLP)
• Full piano score with notes
• Collection of critical reactions to the 1875 premiere, part of the Francophone Music Criticism project on SAS-Space
• Carmen at Project Gutenberg
• Recordings of Carmen
• Carmen Filmography, an online resource documenting film versions of the Carmen story, hosted by AHDS Performing Arts
• Carmen and other works by Mérimée in English
• Template:De icon Many photos of recent productions of Carmen in Germany, Switzerland, and France