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In the sign next to the statue, ''Patanjali Yogpeeth'' attributes the title of [[Maharishi]] to Sushruta, claims a floruit of 1500 BC for him, and dubs him the "founding father of surgery", and identifies the ''Sushrut Samhita'' as "the best and outstanding commentary on Medical Science of Surgery".]]
In the sign next to the statue, ''Patanjali Yogpeeth'' attributes the title of [[Maharishi]] to Sushruta, claims a floruit of 1500 BC for him, and dubs him the "founding father of surgery", and identifies the ''Sushrut Samhita'' as "the best and outstanding commentary on Medical Science of Surgery".]]


''[[Sushruta|Suśruta]]'' ([[Devanagari]] सुश्रुत, an adjective meaning "renowned"<ref>Monier-Williams, ''A Sanskrit Dictionary'' (1899).</ref>) is named in the text as the author, who presented the teaching of his guru, Divodāsa.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title = An English Translation of the Sushruta Samhita, based on Original Sanskrit Text|last = Bhishagratna|first = Kunjalal|publisher = |year = 1907|isbn = |location = Calcutta|pages = 1|url = https://archive.org/stream/englishtranslati01susruoft#page/n103/mode/2up|ref = bhishagratna}}</ref> Later commentators mention that another author redacted the first five chapters and added the final section, the ''Uttara-tantra.'' Some authors state that this redactor was called Nāgarjuna, but many historical questions surround this name, and the history of the layers of the Suśruta-saṃhitā remains a large and difficult research problem.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title = A History of Indian Medical Literature|last = Meulenbeld|first = Gerrit Jan|publisher = Brill|year = 2002|isbn = 9789069801247|location = Groningen|pages = 347-350|volume = IA}}</ref> It has also become clear that there are several ancient authors called "Suśruta" and that they should not be conflated.<ref name=":1" />
''[[Sushruta|Suśruta]]'' ([[Devanagari]] सुश्रुत, an adjective meaning "renowned"<ref>Monier-Williams, ''A Sanskrit Dictionary'' (1899).</ref>) is named in the text as the author, who presented the teaching of his guru, Divodāsa.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title = An English Translation of the Sushruta Samhita, based on Original Sanskrit Text|last = Bhishagratna|first = Kunjalal|publisher = |year = 1907|isbn = |location = Calcutta|pages = 1|url = https://archive.org/stream/englishtranslati01susruoft#page/n103/mode/2up|ref = bhishagratna}}</ref> He is said to have been a physician, originally of [[Kerala]],<ref>{{cite book|title=The Encyclopaedia Of Indian Literature (Volume One (A To Devo))|page=311|author=Amaresh Datta, various|publisher=Sahitya academy}}</ref> who worked in [[Varanasi]], sometime between 1200 BC and 600 BC.<ref>{{cite book|title=Plants and the Human Brain|page=265|publisher=Oxford|author=David O. Kennedy}}</ref><ref name="singhguide">{{cite book |title=Banaras Region: A Spiritual and Cultural Guide |last=Singh |first=P.B. |authorlink= |author2=Pravin S. Rana |year=2002 |publisher=Indica Books |location=Varanasi |isbn=81-86569-24-3 |page=31 |pages= |url= |accessdate=1 April 2011}}{{verify credibility|date=October 2014}}<!--seriously? our source is a tourist guide?--></ref> One of the earliest known mentions of the name is from the ''[[Bower Manuscript]]'' (4th or 5th century), where Sushruta is listed as one of the ten sages residing in the Himalayas.<ref name="Kutumbian, pages XXXII-XXXIII">Kutumbian, pages XXXII-XXXIII</ref><ref name="Kutumbian, pages XXXII-XXXIII"/> Texts also suggest that he learned surgery at [[Varanasi]] from Lord [[Dhanvantari]], the god of medicine in Hindu mythology.<ref>[[Monier-Williams]], ''A Sanskrit Dictionary'', s.v. "suśruta"</ref> G. D. Singhal, who translated the ''Suśrutasaṃhitā'', dubbed Suśruta "the Father of Surgery" on account of the extraordinarily accurate and details accounts of surgery to be found in the work.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Diagnostic considerations in ancient Indian surgery: (based on Nidāna-Sthāna of Suśruta Saṁhitā)|last = Singhal|first = G. D.|publisher = Singhal Publications|year = 1972|location = Varanasi}}</ref> The ''samhita'' locates its author, [[Sushruta|Suśruta]], in Varanasi.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title = An English Translation of the Sushruta Samhita, based on Original Sanskrit Text|last = Bhishagratna|first = Kunjalal|publisher = |year = 1907|isbn = |location = Calcutta|pages = 1|url = https://archive.org/stream/englishtranslati01susruoft#page/n103/mode/2up|ref = bhishagratna}}</ref>

Later commentators mention that another author redacted the first five chapters and added the final section, the ''Uttara-tantra.'' Some authors state that this redactor was called Nāgarjuna, but many historical questions surround this name, and the history of the layers of the Suśruta-saṃhitā remains a large and difficult research problem.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title = A History of Indian Medical Literature|last = Meulenbeld|first = Gerrit Jan|publisher = Brill|year = 2002|isbn = 9789069801247|location = Groningen|pages = 347-350|volume = IA}}</ref> It has also become clear that there are several ancient authors called "Suśruta" and that they should not be conflated.<ref name=":1" />


[[S. K. Ramachandra Rao|Rao]] (2005) speculated that there may be an original "layer" to the text which might indeed date to the "elder Sushruta" (''Vrddha Sushruta'') which was redacted "by another Sushruta in the first century A.D.", with still later additions and redactions by [[Nagarjuna]] leading to the extant text; a redaction by one Nagarjuna is explicitly mentioned by Dalhana, the author of the primary commentary on the Sushruta Samhita.<ref name="Rao" />
[[S. K. Ramachandra Rao|Rao]] (2005) speculated that there may be an original "layer" to the text which might indeed date to the "elder Sushruta" (''Vrddha Sushruta'') which was redacted "by another Sushruta in the first century A.D.", with still later additions and redactions by [[Nagarjuna]] leading to the extant text; a redaction by one Nagarjuna is explicitly mentioned by Dalhana, the author of the primary commentary on the Sushruta Samhita.<ref name="Rao" />

Revision as of 12:43, 9 January 2016

The Suśruta Saṃhitā or Suśrutasamhitā (सुश्रुतसंहिता, " Suśruta's Compendium") is an ancient Sanskrit text on medicine and surgery, and one of the most important such treatises on this subject to survive from the anywhere in the ancient world. The treatise addresses all aspects of general medicine, but the translator G. D. Singhal dubbed Suśruta "the father of surgery" on account of the extraordinarily accurate and details accounts of surgery to be found in the work.[1] The Compendium of Suśruta locates its author, Suśruta, in Varanasi.[2]

The Compendium of Suśruta is one of the foundational texts of Ayurveda (Indian traditional medicine), alongside the Caraka-Saṃhitā, the Bheḷa-Saṃhitā, and the medical portions of the Bower Manuscript.[3][4][5]

Date

The early scholar Rudolf Hoernle proposed that some concepts from the Suśruta-saṃhitā could be found in the Śatapatha-Brāhmaṇa, that he dated to the sixth century BCE.[6] However, during the last century, scholarship on the history of Indian medical literature has advanced substantially, and firm evidence has accumulated that the Suśruta-saṃhitā is a work of several historical layers, whose composition may have begun in the last centuries BCE and was completed in its present form by another author who redacted its first five chapters and added the long, final chapter, the "Uttaratantra." It is likely that the Suśruta-saṃhitā was known to the scholar Dṛḍhabala (fl. 300-500 CE), which gives the latest date for the version of the work that has come down to us today.[7]

Authorship

A statue dedicated to Sushruta at the Patanjali Yogpeeth institute in Haridwar. In the sign next to the statue, Patanjali Yogpeeth attributes the title of Maharishi to Sushruta, claims a floruit of 1500 BC for him, and dubs him the "founding father of surgery", and identifies the Sushrut Samhita as "the best and outstanding commentary on Medical Science of Surgery".

Suśruta (Devanagari सुश्रुत, an adjective meaning "renowned"[8]) is named in the text as the author, who presented the teaching of his guru, Divodāsa.[2] He is said to have been a physician, originally of Kerala,[9] who worked in Varanasi, sometime between 1200 BC and 600 BC.[10][11] One of the earliest known mentions of the name is from the Bower Manuscript (4th or 5th century), where Sushruta is listed as one of the ten sages residing in the Himalayas.[12][12] Texts also suggest that he learned surgery at Varanasi from Lord Dhanvantari, the god of medicine in Hindu mythology.[13] G. D. Singhal, who translated the Suśrutasaṃhitā, dubbed Suśruta "the Father of Surgery" on account of the extraordinarily accurate and details accounts of surgery to be found in the work.[14] The samhita locates its author, Suśruta, in Varanasi.[2]

Later commentators mention that another author redacted the first five chapters and added the final section, the Uttara-tantra. Some authors state that this redactor was called Nāgarjuna, but many historical questions surround this name, and the history of the layers of the Suśruta-saṃhitā remains a large and difficult research problem.[7] It has also become clear that there are several ancient authors called "Suśruta" and that they should not be conflated.[7]

Rao (2005) speculated that there may be an original "layer" to the text which might indeed date to the "elder Sushruta" (Vrddha Sushruta) which was redacted "by another Sushruta in the first century A.D.", with still later additions and redactions by Nagarjuna leading to the extant text; a redaction by one Nagarjuna is explicitly mentioned by Dalhana, the author of the primary commentary on the Sushruta Samhita.[15]

Transmission

Our knowledge of the contents of the Suśruta-saṃhitā is based on editions of the text that were published during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Especially noteworthy is the edition by the great editor and scholar Vaidya Yādavaśarman Trivikramātmaja Ācārya. that also includes the commentary of the scholar Dalhaṇa.[16] These editions themselves are based on just a small number of manuscripts that were available to the editors in the major publishing centres of Bombay, Calcutta and elsewhere, sometimes as few as three or four manuscripts. But a large number of manuscripts of the Suśruta-saṃhitā survive in libraries in India and abroad today, perhaps a hundred or more, and these have never been compared and studied with a view to creating a critical edition of the Suśruta-saṃhitā.

Contents

The Sushruta Samhita, in its extant form, is divided into 184 chapters and contains descriptions of 1,120 illnesses, 700 medicinal plants, 64 preparations from mineral sources and 57 preparations based on animal sources.[17] The text discusses surgical techniques of making incisions, probing, extraction of foreign bodies, alkali and thermal cauterization, tooth extraction, excisions, and trocars for draining abscess, draining hydrocele and ascitic fluid, the removal of the prostate gland, urethral stricture dilatation, vesiculolithotomy, hernia surgery, caesarian section, management of haemorrhoids, fistulae, laparotomy and management of intestinal obstruction, perforated intestines, and accidental perforation of the abdomen with protrusion of omentum and the principles of fracture management, viz., traction, manipulation, appositions and stabilization including some measures of rehabilitation and fitting of prosthetics. It enumerates six types of dislocations, twelve varieties of fractures, and classification of the bones and their reaction to the injuries, and gives a classification of eye diseases including cataract surgery.

A convenient overview of its contents was published by the Indian National Science Academy in 1980,[18] and an extremely detailed analysis of every chapter is provided in Meulenbeld's History of Indian Medical Literature.[7]

The Suśruta-Saṃhitā is divided into two parts: the first five chapters, which are considered to be the oldest part of the text, and the "Latter Section" (Skt. Uttaratantra) that was added by the author Dṛḍhabala.

  • The first five books, comprising 120 chapters, are:
    • The Sūtra-sthāna.
    • The Nidāna-sthāna, dedicated to aetiology, the signs and symptoms of important surgical diseases and those ailments which have a bearing on surgery.
    • The Śārīra-sthāna covers the rudiments of embryology and human anatomy, along with instructions for venesection, the positioning of the patient for each vein, and the protection of vital structures (marma). It also includes the essentials of obstetrics.
    • The Kalpa-sthāna deals with the nature of poisons and their management, including vegetable poisons, the taxonomy and poisons of snakes, and the bites of rats, spiders and other creatures.
    • The Cikitsā-sthāna describes the principles of therapeutic management. It coversr surgical conditions, including obstetrical emergencies and chapters on geriatrics and aphrodisiacs.
  • The Uttara-tantra contains the remaining four specialities, namely surgery, the care of children, therapy for the whole body, and the explusion of spirits. The surgical portion of the Uttara-tantra is famous for its descriptions of diseases of the eye, the ear, the nose and the head, including cataract surgery.

The Compendium is dedicated to other disciplines as well. Suśruta emphasizes that unless students possess enough knowledge of relevant sister branches of learning, they cannot attain proficiency in their own subject of study. The Samhita represents an encyclopedic approach to medical learning, with special emphasis on Salya and Salakya, and can be thought of as a comprehensive treatise on the entire medical discipline.

Surgical procedures described

Sushruta points out that haemorrhage can be arrested by apposition of the cut edges with stitches, application of styptic decoctions, by cauterisation with chemicals or heat. In ancient times, the practice of surgery, and hence its development, were closely associated with warfare. The vrana or injury, says Sushruta, involves the breakdown of body-components and may occur in one or more of the following tissues - skin, flesh, blood-vessels, sinews, bones, joints, internal organs of chest and abdomen and vital structures. Classically vrana, the wound, is considered to be the explosion of the underlying pathological structure. It is, in Sushruta's words, the sixth stage of a continuous process, which starts with sotha (inflammation). Sushruta says that in the first stage, the ulcer is unclean and hence called a dusta-vrana. By proper management it becomes a clean wound, a suddha-vrana. Then there is an attempt at healing and is called ruhyamana-vrana and when the ulcer is completely healed, it is a rudha-vrana. Sushruta has advocated the use of wine with incense of cannabis for anaesthesia.[4] Although the use of henbane and of Sammohini and Sanjivani are reported at a later period, Sushruta was the pioneer of anaesthesia.

Sushruta describes eight types of surgical procedures: Excision (chedana) is a procedure whereby a part or whole of the limb is cut off from the parent. Incision (bhedana) is made to achieve effective drainage or exposure of underlying structures to let the content out. Scraping (lekhana) or scooping is carried out to remove a growth or flesh of an ulcer, tartar of teeth, etc. the veins, hydrocele and ascitic fluid in the abdomen are drained by puncturing with special instrument (vyadhana). The sinuses and cavities with foreign bodies are probed (esana) for establishing their size, site, number, shape, position, situation, etc. Sravana (blood-letting) is to be carried out in skin diseases, vidradhis, localised swelling, etc. in case of accidental injuries and in intentional incisions, the lips of the wound are apposed and united by stitching (svana).

To obtain proficiency and acquiring skill and speed in these different types of surgical manipulations, Sushruta had devised various experimental modules for trying each procedure. For example, incision and excision are to be practised on vegetables and leather bags filled with mud of different densities; scraping on hairy skin of animals; puncturing on the vein of dead animals and lotus stalks; probing on moth-eaten wood or bamboo; scarification on wooden planks smeared with beeswax, etc. On the subject of trauma, Sushruta speaks of six varieties of accidental injuries encompassing almost all parts of the body.

Sushruta also classifies the bones and their reaction to injuries, the varieties of dislocation of joints (sandhimukta) and fractures of the shaft (kanda-bhagna). He classifies and details the six types of dislocations and twelve varieties of fractures. He gives the principles of fracture treatment, viz., traction, manipulation, appositions and stabilisation. Sushruta has described the entire orthopaedic surgery, including some measures of rehabilitation, in his work.

As war was a major cause of injury, the name Salya-tantra for this branch of medical learning is derived from Salya, the arrow of the enemy, which in fights used to be lodged in the body of the soldiers. He emphasises that removal of foreign bodies is fraught with certain complications if the seat of the Salya be a marma (vital point).

Sushruta also discusses certain surgical conditions of ano-rectal region, he describes how to manage haemorrhoids and fistulae. Different types of incision to remove the fistulous tract - langalaka, ardhalangalaka, sarvabhadra, candraadha (curved) and kharjurapatraka (serrated) are described for adoption according to the type of fistula.

Sushruta was well aware of the urinary stones, their varieties; the anatomy of urinary bladder along with its relations is well recorded in the chapter on urinary stones. Varieties of stones, their signs and symptoms, the method of extraction and operative complication are given in detail. Apart from the above, surgery of intestinal obstruction (baddha-gudodara), perforated intestines (chidrodara), accidental injuries to abdomen (assaya-bhinna) in which protrusion of omentum occurs are also described along with their management.

A number of Sushruta's contributions to medicine are listed below:

Angina pectoris, mention and treatment of The concept of Hritshoola—literally heart pain—was known to Sushruta. Dwivedi & Dwivedi (2007) hold that: 'It embodies all the essential components of present day definition, i.e. site, nature, aggravating and relieving factors and referral. According to him angina is chest pain which is precordial, temporary, exertional, emotional, burning like and relieved by rest. He also linked this kind of pain to obesity (medoroga).'[17]
Circulatory system, description of The knowledge of circulation of vital fluids (such as blood (rakta dhatu) and lymph (rasa dhatu) through the body was known to Sushruta. He also seems to possess knowledge of the arteries, described as 'channels' by Dwivedi & Dwivedi (2007).[17]
Diabetes, mention and treatment of Sushruta identified diabetes and classified it as Madhumeha. He further identified it with obesity and sedentary lifestyle, advising exercises to help cure it.[17]
Hypertension, mention and treatment of Sushruta also explains hypertension in a manner which matches the modern symptoms of the disease.[17]
Leprosy, mention and treatment of Writing in the Encyclopedia Britannica 2008, Kearns & Nash (2008) state that the first mention of leprosy is described in Sushruta Samhita.[19] The The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Human Paleopathology (1998) holds that: "The Sushruta Samhita from India describes the condition quite well and even offers therapeutic suggestions as early as about 600 B.C."[20]
Obesity, mention and treatment of Obesity was known to Sushruta who also related it with diabetes and heart disorder. He recommended physical work in order to help cure it and its side effects.[17]
Stones, mention and treatment of The earliest operation for curing stones is also given in the Sushruta Samhita. The operation involved exposure and going up through the floor of the bladder.[21]

The samhita lays down the basic principles of plastic surgery by advocating a proper physiotherapy before the operation and describes various methods or different types of defects, viz.

  1. release of the skin for covering small defects,
  2. rotation of the flaps to make up for the partial loss and
  3. pedicle flaps for covering complete loss of skin from an area.

He has mentioned various methods including sliding graft, rotation graft and pedicle graft.[22] Reconstruction of a nose (rhinoplasty) which has been cut off, using a flap of skin from the cheek, has been described.[23] Labioplasty too has received attention in the samahita.[24]

Transmission outside India

The text was translated to Arabic as Kitab-i-Susrud in Baghdad during the 8th century by a physician known as "Manka." It was known to the Khmer king Yaśovarman I (fl. 889-900). Suśruta was also known as a medical authority in Tibetan literature.[7]

Medieval and modern reception

Both the Suśruta-saṃhitā and the Caraka-Saṃhitā were translated into Arabic during the 8th century at the instructions of a member of the Barmakid family of Baghdad.[25] The work was known as Kitab Shah Shun al-Hindi in Arabic, or alternatively as Kitab i-Susurud.

The 9th-century Persian physician Rhazes was familiar with the text.[15]

In India, a major commentary on the text, known as Nibandha-samgraha, was written by Dalhana in ca. 1200 CE.

The Arabic translation was received in Europe by the end of the medieval period. In Renaissance Italy, the Branca family of Sicily and Gasparo Tagliacozzi (Bologna) became familiar with the techniques mentioned in the Sushruta Samahita.[26][27]

The editio princeps of the text was prepared by Madhusudan Datta (Calcutta 1835). A partial English translation by U. C. Datta appeared in 1883. English translations of the full text were published by A. M. Kunte (Bombay 1876) and Kunja-lal Bhishagratna (1907-1911; reprinted 1963, 2006).[15] An English translation of both the Sushruta Samhita and Dalhana's commentary was published in three volumes by P. V. Sharma in 1999.[28]

See also

References

  1. ^ Singhal, G. D. (1972). Diagnostic considerations in ancient Indian surgery: (based on Nidāna-Sthāna of Suśruta Saṁhitā). Varanasi: Singhal Publications.
  2. ^ a b c Bhishagratna, Kunjalal (1907). An English Translation of the Sushruta Samhita, based on Original Sanskrit Text. Calcutta. p. 1.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  3. ^ Wujastyk, Dominik (2003). The Roots of Ayurveda. London etc.: Penguin. pp. 149–160. ISBN 0140448241.
  4. ^ a b Raju VK (2003). "Sushruta of ancient India". Retrieved 2007-05-24.
  5. ^ Loukas, M; Lanteri, A; Ferrauiola, J; Tubbs, R. S.; Maharaja, G; Shoja, M. M.; Yadav, A; Rao, V. C. (2010). "Anatomy in ancient India: A focus on the Susruta Samhita". Journal of Anatomy. 217 (6): 646–50. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7580.2010.01294.x. PMC 3039177. PMID 20887391.
  6. ^ Hoernle, A. F. Rudolf (1907). Studies in the Medicine of Ancient India: Osteology or the Bones of the Human Body. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 8.
  7. ^ a b c d e Meulenbeld, Gerrit Jan (2002). A History of Indian Medical Literature. Vol. IA. Groningen: Brill. pp. 203–389. ISBN 9789069801247. Cite error: The named reference ":1" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  8. ^ Monier-Williams, A Sanskrit Dictionary (1899).
  9. ^ Amaresh Datta, various. The Encyclopaedia Of Indian Literature (Volume One (A To Devo)). Sahitya academy. p. 311.
  10. ^ David O. Kennedy. Plants and the Human Brain. Oxford. p. 265.
  11. ^ Singh, P.B.; Pravin S. Rana (2002). Banaras Region: A Spiritual and Cultural Guide. Varanasi: Indica Books. p. 31. ISBN 81-86569-24-3. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)[unreliable source?]
  12. ^ a b Kutumbian, pages XXXII-XXXIII
  13. ^ Monier-Williams, A Sanskrit Dictionary, s.v. "suśruta"
  14. ^ Singhal, G. D. (1972). Diagnostic considerations in ancient Indian surgery: (based on Nidāna-Sthāna of Suśruta Saṁhitā). Varanasi: Singhal Publications.
  15. ^ a b c Ramachandra S.K. Rao, Encyclopaedia of Indian Medicine: historical perspective, Volume 1, 2005, 94-98.
  16. ^ Ācārya, Yādavaśarman Trivikrama (1938). Suśrutasaṃhitā, Suśrutena viracitā, Vaidyavaraśrīḍalhaṇācāryaviracitayā Nibandhasaṃgrahākhyavyākhyayā samullasitā, Ācāryopāhvena Trivikramātmajena Yādavaśarmaṇā saṃśodhitā. Mumbayyāṃ: Nirnaya Sagara Press.
  17. ^ a b c d e f Dwivedi & Dwivedi (2007)
  18. ^ Ray, Priyadaranjan; Gupta, Hirendra Nath; Roy, Mira (1980). Suśruta Saṃhita (a Scientific Synopsis). New Delhi: INSA.
  19. ^ Kearns & Nash (2008)
  20. ^ Aufderheide, A. C.; Rodriguez-Martin, C. & Langsjoen, O. (page 148)
  21. ^ Lock etc., page 836
  22. ^ Lana Thompson. Plastic Surgery. ABC-CLIO. p. 8.
  23. ^ Melvin A. Shiffman, Alberto Di Gi. Advanced Aesthetic Rhinoplasty: Art, Science, and New Clinical Techniques. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 132.
  24. ^ Sharma, Kumar. History BA (Programme) Semester II: Questions and Answers , University of Delhi. Pearson Education India. p. 147.
  25. ^ Meulenbeld, Gerrit Jan (2002). The History of Indian Medical Literature. Vol. IA. Groningen: Brill. p. 352. ISBN 9789069801247.
  26. ^ Lock etc., page 607
  27. ^ New Scientist Jul 26, 1984, p. 43
  28. ^ Susruta-Samhita: With English Translation of Text and Dalhana's Commentary Along with Critical Notes, 3 Vols. Vol. I: Sutrasthana, Vol. II: Kalpasthana and Uttaratantra, Vol. III: Nidana, Sarira and Cikitsasthana; Chowkhamba Visvabharati; Varanasi, India; 1999; First Edition; 1983 pages.

Bibliography

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