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A Han Chinese named Rinong was allowed to marry a Mongol woman by the Gün-bilig-mergen Mongol Ordos leader Rinong (Jinong). This Han Chinese was Datong Army officer Wang Duo's (Wang To) 王鐸 son Wang San 王三 because Rinong wanted to hold on to Wang San and make him stay with the Mongols. The Ming arrested and executed Wang San in 1544 because Mongol soldiers were being guided by Wang San. Builders, carpenters, officers, and important prisoners such as the Ming Zhengtong Emperor often received Mongol wives.<ref name="Serruys1959">{{cite book|author=Henry Serruys|title=Chinese in Southern Mongolia During the Sixteenth Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id=IlohAQAAMAAJ&dq=mongol+wives+foreign+prisoners+high+standing+captured+officers+carpenters&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=jinong|year=1959|publisher=C.I.C.M.|page=75}}</ref>
A Han Chinese named Rinong was allowed to marry a Mongol woman by the Gün-bilig-mergen Mongol Ordos leader Rinong (Jinong). This Han Chinese was Datong Army officer Wang Duo's (Wang To) 王鐸 son Wang San 王三 because Rinong wanted to hold on to Wang San and make him stay with the Mongols. The Ming arrested and executed Wang San in 1544 because Mongol soldiers were being guided by Wang San. Builders, carpenters, officers, and important prisoners such as the Ming Zhengtong Emperor often received Mongol wives.<ref name="Serruys1959">{{cite book|author=Henry Serruys|title=Chinese in Southern Mongolia During the Sixteenth Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id=IlohAQAAMAAJ&dq=mongol+wives+foreign+prisoners+high+standing+captured+officers+carpenters&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=jinong|year=1959|publisher=C.I.C.M.|page=75}}</ref>


⚫
==Qing dynasty==
==Non-Han dynasties and states==


The preferred marriage partners for imperial daughters in Qing dynasty was Mongols rather than Chinese. More than 58 percent of imperial son-in-law were Mongols.The Manchus considered Mongols as their "brother state" since they shared similar values. In early period of Qing, a large amount of intermarriage between the two groups happened, and the Manchu rulers used this tie to gain the military support of Mongolia. The marriage also benefited the Qing Dynasty in expanding its empire to the best during the first decades. The marriage between Manchu princesses and Mongol princes continued to the end of Qing Dynasty, although becoming less prominent after the 18th century due to the decline of Mongolia's political and military influence.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Servants of the Dynasty: Palace Women in World History|last=|first=|publisher=|year=|isbn=|location=|pages=149-150}}</ref>
⚫
===Xiongnu===

Han Chinese Generals who defected to the Manchu in early Qing were sometimes married to imperial daughters, although this is much less frequent than the case where Aisin Giroro women married to Mongolian aristocrats or other Manchu elite. Unlike the marriage between Manchu and Mongolians that lasted throughout the Qing Dynasty, the relatively rare marriage between Manchu princesses and Han Generals ceased before 1750. Manchu Aisin Gioro princesses might also married to Han Chinese official's sons. The 4th daughter of Kangxi ([[和硕悫靖公主]]) was wedded to the son ([[孫承恩]]) of the Sun Sike (Sun Ssu-k'o) [[孫思克]]. There were some other Aisin Gioro women who married the sons of the Han Chinese Generals [[Geng Jimao]] (Keng Chi-mao), [[Shang Kexi]] (Shang K'o-hsi), and [[Wu Sangui]] (Wu San-kuei). However after the rebellion of some of these generals the Qing court became even less likely to use marriage to strengthen its ruling.

⚫
==Xiongnu==
The Xiongnu practiced marriage alliances with Han dynasty officers and officials who defected to their side. The older sister of the Chanyu (the Xiongnu ruler) was married to the Xiongnu General [[Zhao Xin]], the Marquis of Xi who was serving the Han dynasty. The daughter of the Chanyu was married to the Han Chinese General [[Li Ling]] after he surrendered and defected.<ref>[https://www.academia.edu/5147439/Aristocratic_elites_in_the_Xiongnu_empire], p. 31.</ref><ref name="SimaWatson1993">{{cite book|author1=Qian Sima|author2=Burton Watson|title=Records of the Grand Historian: Han dynasty|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YNlgKEVYdHEC&pg=PA161&dq=li+guangli+daughter&hl=en&sa=X&ei=4gmXVIyxD8uxggSl-oLYDQ&ved=0CB8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=li%20guangli%20daughter&f=false|date=January 1993|publisher=Renditions-Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-08166-5|pages=161–}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Monumenta Serica|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8-1wAAAAMAAJ&q=li+guangli+daughter+chanyu&dq=li+guangli+daughter+chanyu&hl=en&sa=X&ei=3wiXVOTEOMehgwTc8IPwBw&ved=0CB0Q6AEwAA|year=2004|publisher=H. Vetch|page=81}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Frederic E. Wakeman|title=The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-century China|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8nXLwSG2O8AC&pg=PA41|year=1985|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-04804-1|pages=41–}}</ref> The [[Yenisei Kirghiz]] Khagans claimed descent from Li Ling.<ref>{{cite book |accessdate= 8 February 2012|title=The role of women in the Altaic world: Permanent International Altaistic Conference, 44th meeting, Walberberg, 26-31 August 2001|editor=Veronika Veit|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OBEIq8kTQBcC&pg=PA61&f=false|edition=illustrated|volume=Volume 152 of Asiatische Forschungen|series= |year=2007|location=|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|language=|isbn=3447055375|page=61|pages= }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |accessdate= 8 February 2012 |title=Tang China and the collapse of the Uighur Empire: a documentary history |author=Michael Robert Drompp |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NB6DEdAxLOsC&pg=PA126&f=false|edition=illustrated|volume=Volume 13 of Brill's Inner Asian library|series=|year=2005|location= |publisher=BRILL|language=|isbn=9004141294|page=126|pages= }}</ref> Another Han Chinese General who defected to the Xiongnu was [[Li Guangli]] who also married a daughter of the Chanyu.<ref>{{cite book |author=Lin Jianming (林剑鸣) |title=秦漢史 |trans-title=History of Qin and Han |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lqfrEY8UW1UC&pg=PA557 |year=1992 |publisher=Wunan Publishing |isbn=978-957-11-0574-1 |pages=557–8}}</ref>
The Xiongnu practiced marriage alliances with Han dynasty officers and officials who defected to their side. The older sister of the Chanyu (the Xiongnu ruler) was married to the Xiongnu General [[Zhao Xin]], the Marquis of Xi who was serving the Han dynasty. The daughter of the Chanyu was married to the Han Chinese General [[Li Ling]] after he surrendered and defected.<ref>[https://www.academia.edu/5147439/Aristocratic_elites_in_the_Xiongnu_empire], p. 31.</ref><ref name="SimaWatson1993">{{cite book|author1=Qian Sima|author2=Burton Watson|title=Records of the Grand Historian: Han dynasty|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YNlgKEVYdHEC&pg=PA161&dq=li+guangli+daughter&hl=en&sa=X&ei=4gmXVIyxD8uxggSl-oLYDQ&ved=0CB8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=li%20guangli%20daughter&f=false|date=January 1993|publisher=Renditions-Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-08166-5|pages=161–}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Monumenta Serica|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8-1wAAAAMAAJ&q=li+guangli+daughter+chanyu&dq=li+guangli+daughter+chanyu&hl=en&sa=X&ei=3wiXVOTEOMehgwTc8IPwBw&ved=0CB0Q6AEwAA|year=2004|publisher=H. Vetch|page=81}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Frederic E. Wakeman|title=The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-century China|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8nXLwSG2O8AC&pg=PA41|year=1985|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-04804-1|pages=41–}}</ref> The [[Yenisei Kirghiz]] Khagans claimed descent from Li Ling.<ref>{{cite book |accessdate= 8 February 2012|title=The role of women in the Altaic world: Permanent International Altaistic Conference, 44th meeting, Walberberg, 26-31 August 2001|editor=Veronika Veit|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OBEIq8kTQBcC&pg=PA61&f=false|edition=illustrated|volume=Volume 152 of Asiatische Forschungen|series= |year=2007|location=|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|language=|isbn=3447055375|page=61|pages= }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |accessdate= 8 February 2012 |title=Tang China and the collapse of the Uighur Empire: a documentary history |author=Michael Robert Drompp |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NB6DEdAxLOsC&pg=PA126&f=false|edition=illustrated|volume=Volume 13 of Brill's Inner Asian library|series=|year=2005|location= |publisher=BRILL|language=|isbn=9004141294|page=126|pages= }}</ref> Another Han Chinese General who defected to the Xiongnu was [[Li Guangli]] who also married a daughter of the Chanyu.<ref>{{cite book |author=Lin Jianming (林剑鸣) |title=秦漢史 |trans-title=History of Qin and Han |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lqfrEY8UW1UC&pg=PA557 |year=1992 |publisher=Wunan Publishing |isbn=978-957-11-0574-1 |pages=557–8}}</ref>


===Northern Wei===
==Northern Wei==
The [[Xianbei]] [[Tuoba]] royal family of [[Northern Wei]] started to arrange for Han Chinese elites to marry daughters of the royal family in the 480s.<ref name="Watson1991">{{cite book|author=Rubie Sharon Watson|title=Marriage and Inequality in Chinese Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gAIcwz3V_JsC&pg=PA80#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=1991|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-07124-7|pages=80–}}</ref> Some Han Chinese exiled royalty fled from southern China and defected to the Xianbei. Several daughters of the Xianbei [[Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei]] were married to Han Chinese elites, the Han Chinese [[Liu Song]] royal Liu Hui 刘辉, married Princess Lanling 蘭陵公主 of the Northern Wei,<ref name="SwartzCampany2013">{{harvp|Lee|2014}}.</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Papers on Far Eastern History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BdtBAAAAYAAJ&q=liu+hui+wei+princess&dq=liu+hui+wei+princess&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjB-ZTVz7fNAhXEVD4KHYfgAzwQ6AEIJzAC|year=1983|publisher=Australian National University, Department of Far Eastern History.|page=86}}</ref> Princess Huayang 華陽公主 to Sima Fei 司馬朏, a descendant of [[Jin dynasty (265–420)]] royalty, Princess Jinan 濟南公主 to Lu Daoqian 盧道虔, Princess Nanyang 南阳长公主 to [[Xiao Baoyin]] 萧宝夤, a member of [[Southern Qi]] royalty.<ref>{{cite book|title=China: Dawn of a Golden Age, 200-750 AD|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JbdS-R3y72MC&pg=PA30&dq=Xiao+Baoyin&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj5mom6zbfNAhXC2D4KHQMrBEoQ6AEILTAD#v=onepage&q=Xiao%20Baoyin&f=false|year=2004|publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art|isbn=978-1-58839-126-1|pages=30–}}</ref> [[Emperor Xiaozhuang of Northern Wei]]'s sister the Shouyang Princess was wedded to The [[Liang dynasty]] ruler [[Emperor Wu of Liang]]'s son Xiao Zong [[w:zh:蕭綜|蕭綜]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Ancient and Early Medieval Chinese Literature (vol.3 & 4): A Reference Guide, Part Three & Four|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OWLPBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1566&dq=Xiao+Baoyin&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj5mom6zbfNAhXC2D4KHQMrBEoQ6AEIKTAC#v=onepage&q=Xiao%20Baoyin&f=false|date=22 September 2014|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-27185-2|pages=1566–}}</ref>
The [[Xianbei]] [[Tuoba]] royal family of [[Northern Wei]] started to arrange for Han Chinese elites to marry daughters of the royal family in the 480s.<ref name="Watson1991">{{cite book|author=Rubie Sharon Watson|title=Marriage and Inequality in Chinese Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gAIcwz3V_JsC&pg=PA80#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=1991|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-07124-7|pages=80–}}</ref> Some Han Chinese exiled royalty fled from southern China and defected to the Xianbei. Several daughters of the Xianbei [[Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei]] were married to Han Chinese elites, the Han Chinese [[Liu Song]] royal Liu Hui 刘辉, married Princess Lanling 蘭陵公主 of the Northern Wei,<ref name="SwartzCampany2013">{{harvp|Lee|2014}}.</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Papers on Far Eastern History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BdtBAAAAYAAJ&q=liu+hui+wei+princess&dq=liu+hui+wei+princess&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjB-ZTVz7fNAhXEVD4KHYfgAzwQ6AEIJzAC|year=1983|publisher=Australian National University, Department of Far Eastern History.|page=86}}</ref> Princess Huayang 華陽公主 to Sima Fei 司馬朏, a descendant of [[Jin dynasty (265–420)]] royalty, Princess Jinan 濟南公主 to Lu Daoqian 盧道虔, Princess Nanyang 南阳长公主 to [[Xiao Baoyin]] 萧宝夤, a member of [[Southern Qi]] royalty.<ref>{{cite book|title=China: Dawn of a Golden Age, 200-750 AD|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JbdS-R3y72MC&pg=PA30&dq=Xiao+Baoyin&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj5mom6zbfNAhXC2D4KHQMrBEoQ6AEILTAD#v=onepage&q=Xiao%20Baoyin&f=false|year=2004|publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art|isbn=978-1-58839-126-1|pages=30–}}</ref> [[Emperor Xiaozhuang of Northern Wei]]'s sister the Shouyang Princess was wedded to The [[Liang dynasty]] ruler [[Emperor Wu of Liang]]'s son Xiao Zong [[w:zh:蕭綜|蕭綜]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Ancient and Early Medieval Chinese Literature (vol.3 & 4): A Reference Guide, Part Three & Four|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OWLPBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1566&dq=Xiao+Baoyin&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj5mom6zbfNAhXC2D4KHQMrBEoQ6AEIKTAC#v=onepage&q=Xiao%20Baoyin&f=false|date=22 September 2014|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-27185-2|pages=1566–}}</ref>


When the Eastern Jin dynasty ended Northern Wei received the Jin prince Sima Chuzhi [[w:zh:司馬楚之|司馬楚之]] as a refugee. A Northern Wei Princess married Sima Chuzhi, giving birth to Sima Jinlong [[w:zh:司馬金龍|司馬金龍]]. [[Northern Liang]] Xiongnu King [[Juqu Mujian]]'s daughter married Sima Jinlong.<ref>{{cite book|title=China: Dawn of a Golden Age, 200-750 AD|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JbdS-R3y72MC&pg=PA18#v=onepage&q=sima&f=false|year=2004|publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art|isbn=978-1-58839-126-1|pages=18–}}</ref>
When the Eastern Jin dynasty ended Northern Wei received the Jin prince Sima Chuzhi [[w:zh:司馬楚之|司馬楚之]] as a refugee. A Northern Wei Princess married Sima Chuzhi, giving birth to Sima Jinlong [[w:zh:司馬金龍|司馬金龍]]. [[Northern Liang]] Xiongnu King [[Juqu Mujian]]'s daughter married Sima Jinlong.<ref>{{cite book|title=China: Dawn of a Golden Age, 200-750 AD|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JbdS-R3y72MC&pg=PA18#v=onepage&q=sima&f=false|year=2004|publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art|isbn=978-1-58839-126-1|pages=18–}}</ref>


===Jin Dynasty===
==Jin Dynasty==
The founder of the Jin Dynasty in North central China was named Hanpu who came from a man of Silla (Korean) descent who came and married the local Han Chinese women including maintaining concubines. Among his wives one was posthumously called Empress Mingyi 明懿皇后 in 1136. <ref>{{cite book|title=Chen, Shu 陳述 (1960), Five Supplements to the History of Jin 金史拾捕五種, Beijing: Kexue chubanshe 科學出版社.}}</ref>
The founder of the Jin Dynasty in North central China was named Hanpu who came from a man of Silla (Korean) descent who came and married the local Han Chinese women including maintaining concubines. Among his wives one was posthumously called Empress Mingyi 明懿皇后 in 1136. <ref>{{cite book|title=Chen, Shu 陳述 (1960), Five Supplements to the History of Jin 金史拾捕五種, Beijing: Kexue chubanshe 科學出版社.}}</ref>


===Rouran===
==Rouran==
The [[Rouran Khaganate]] arranged for one of their princesses, Khagan [[Yujiulü Anagui]]'s daughter Princess Ruru 蠕蠕公主 to be married to the Han Chinese ruler [[Gao Huan]] of the [[Eastern Wei]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Biographical Dictionary of Chinese Women: Antiquity Through Sui, 1600 B.C.E.-618 C.E.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u7mLql4TAxoC&pg=PA316#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=2007|publisher=M.E. Sharpe|isbn=978-0-7656-4182-3|pages=316–}}</ref><ref>Gao Huan, as demanded by Yujiulü Anagui as one of the peace terms between Eastern Wei and Rouran, married the Princess Ruru in 545, and had her take the place of Princess Lou as his wife, but never formally divorced Princess Lou. After Gao Huan's death, pursuant to Rouran customs, the Princess Ruru became married to Gao Huan's son Gao Cheng, who also, however, did not formally divorce his wife.</ref>
The [[Rouran Khaganate]] arranged for one of their princesses, Khagan [[Yujiulü Anagui]]'s daughter Princess Ruru 蠕蠕公主 to be married to the Han Chinese ruler [[Gao Huan]] of the [[Eastern Wei]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Biographical Dictionary of Chinese Women: Antiquity Through Sui, 1600 B.C.E.-618 C.E.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u7mLql4TAxoC&pg=PA316#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=2007|publisher=M.E. Sharpe|isbn=978-0-7656-4182-3|pages=316–}}</ref><ref>Gao Huan, as demanded by Yujiulü Anagui as one of the peace terms between Eastern Wei and Rouran, married the Princess Ruru in 545, and had her take the place of Princess Lou as his wife, but never formally divorced Princess Lou. After Gao Huan's death, pursuant to Rouran customs, the Princess Ruru became married to Gao Huan's son Gao Cheng, who also, however, did not formally divorce his wife.</ref>


===Turkic Khaganate===
==Turkic Khaganate==


The Kingdom of [[Gaochang]] was made out of Han Chinese colonists and ruled by the Han Chinese<ref name="Puri1987">{{cite book|author=Baij Nath Puri|title=Buddhism in Central Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sluKZfTrr3oC&pg=PA78#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=1987|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ.|isbn=978-81-208-0372-5|pages=78–}}</ref><ref name="EliotEliot1998">{{cite book|author1=Charles Eliot|author2=Sir Charles Eliot|title=Hinduism and Buddhism: An Historical Sketch|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KbPgG6ondlUC&pg=PA206#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=1998|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-7007-0679-2|pages=206–}}</ref> Qu family which originated from Gansu.<ref name="Abramson2011">{{cite book|author=Marc S. Abramson|title=Ethnic Identity in Tang China|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-GLGnRspmcAC&pg=PA119&dq=gaochang+chu&hl=en&sa=X&ei=8GzYUt_vK8i3sATA54CgBQ&ved=0CDMQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=gaochang%20chu&f=false|date=31 December 2011|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|isbn=0-8122-0101-9|pages=119–}}</ref> Jincheng commandery 金城 (Lanzhou), district of Yuzhong 榆中 was the home of the Qu Jia.<ref name="Miller1959">{{cite book|author=Roy Andrew Miller|title=Accounts of Western Nations in the History of the Northern Chou Dynasty &#91;Chou Shu 50. 10b-17b&#93;: Translated and Annotated by Roy Andrew Miller|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G5z04Q046UgC&pg=PA5&dq=kao+ch%27ang&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjF_ou32v3MAhWJFh4KHYcRDEgQ6AEIVjAH#v=onepage&q=kao%20ch%27ang&f=false|year=1959|publisher=University of California Press|pages=5–|id=GGKEY:SXHP29BAXQY}}</ref> The Qu family was linked by marriage allianes to the Turks, with a Turk being the grandmother of King Qu Boya's.<ref name="Skaff1998">{{cite book|author=Jonathan Karam Skaff|title=Straddling steppe and town: Tang China's relations with the nomads of inner Asia (640-756).|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tDgfAQAAMAAJ&q=The+most+striking+example+of+this+phenomena+occurred+in+the+Kingdom+of+Gaochang+when+Qu+Boya+Hffi?%C2%A7%3D+came+to+power+after+the+death+of+his+father+Qu+Jian.+As+mentioned+before,+Qu+Jian%27s+mother+had+been+a+Turk,+so+he+was+half+...&dq=The+most+striking+example+of+this+phenomena+occurred+in+the+Kingdom+of+Gaochang+when+Qu+Boya+Hffi?%C2%A7%3D+came+to+power+after+the+death+of+his+father+Qu+Jian.+As+mentioned+before,+Qu+Jian%27s+mother+had+been+a+Turk,+so+he+was+half+...&hl=en&sa=X&ei=H8OoVMHvJ8adNoCLhOgI&ved=0CB0Q6AEwAA|year=1998|publisher=University of Michigan.|page=57}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Asia Major|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8O8VAQAAMAAJ&q=kao+ch%27ang+turkic&dq=kao+ch%27ang+turkic&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjluKiu2v3MAhXCJB4KHdhLAmgQ6AEIMjAB|year=1998|publisher=Institute of History and Philology of the Academia Sinica|page=87}}</ref>
The Kingdom of [[Gaochang]] was made out of Han Chinese colonists and ruled by the Han Chinese<ref name="Puri1987">{{cite book|author=Baij Nath Puri|title=Buddhism in Central Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sluKZfTrr3oC&pg=PA78#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=1987|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ.|isbn=978-81-208-0372-5|pages=78–}}</ref><ref name="EliotEliot1998">{{cite book|author1=Charles Eliot|author2=Sir Charles Eliot|title=Hinduism and Buddhism: An Historical Sketch|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KbPgG6ondlUC&pg=PA206#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=1998|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-7007-0679-2|pages=206–}}</ref> Qu family which originated from Gansu.<ref name="Abramson2011">{{cite book|author=Marc S. Abramson|title=Ethnic Identity in Tang China|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-GLGnRspmcAC&pg=PA119&dq=gaochang+chu&hl=en&sa=X&ei=8GzYUt_vK8i3sATA54CgBQ&ved=0CDMQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=gaochang%20chu&f=false|date=31 December 2011|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|isbn=0-8122-0101-9|pages=119–}}</ref> Jincheng commandery 金城 (Lanzhou), district of Yuzhong 榆中 was the home of the Qu Jia.<ref name="Miller1959">{{cite book|author=Roy Andrew Miller|title=Accounts of Western Nations in the History of the Northern Chou Dynasty &#91;Chou Shu 50. 10b-17b&#93;: Translated and Annotated by Roy Andrew Miller|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G5z04Q046UgC&pg=PA5&dq=kao+ch%27ang&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjF_ou32v3MAhWJFh4KHYcRDEgQ6AEIVjAH#v=onepage&q=kao%20ch%27ang&f=false|year=1959|publisher=University of California Press|pages=5–|id=GGKEY:SXHP29BAXQY}}</ref> The Qu family was linked by marriage allianes to the Turks, with a Turk being the grandmother of King Qu Boya's.<ref name="Skaff1998">{{cite book|author=Jonathan Karam Skaff|title=Straddling steppe and town: Tang China's relations with the nomads of inner Asia (640-756).|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tDgfAQAAMAAJ&q=The+most+striking+example+of+this+phenomena+occurred+in+the+Kingdom+of+Gaochang+when+Qu+Boya+Hffi?%C2%A7%3D+came+to+power+after+the+death+of+his+father+Qu+Jian.+As+mentioned+before,+Qu+Jian%27s+mother+had+been+a+Turk,+so+he+was+half+...&dq=The+most+striking+example+of+this+phenomena+occurred+in+the+Kingdom+of+Gaochang+when+Qu+Boya+Hffi?%C2%A7%3D+came+to+power+after+the+death+of+his+father+Qu+Jian.+As+mentioned+before,+Qu+Jian%27s+mother+had+been+a+Turk,+so+he+was+half+...&hl=en&sa=X&ei=H8OoVMHvJ8adNoCLhOgI&ved=0CB0Q6AEwAA|year=1998|publisher=University of Michigan.|page=57}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Asia Major|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8O8VAQAAMAAJ&q=kao+ch%27ang+turkic&dq=kao+ch%27ang+turkic&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjluKiu2v3MAhXCJB4KHdhLAmgQ6AEIMjAB|year=1998|publisher=Institute of History and Philology of the Academia Sinica|page=87}}</ref>


===Uighur Ganzhou Kingdom===
==Uighur Ganzhou Kingdom==


The Chinese Cao family ruling [[Guiyi Circuit]] established marriage alliances with the Uighurs of the Ganzhou Kingdom, with both the Cao rulers marrying Uighur princesses and with Cao princesses marrying Uighur rulers. The Ganzhou Uighur Khagan's daughter was married to Cao Yijin in 916.<ref>{{cite book|title=Eighteen Lectures on Dunhuang|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HvIa9sere_8C&pg=PA44#v=onepage&q&f=false|date=7 June 2013|publisher=BRILL|isbn=90-04-25233-9|pages=44–}}</ref><ref name="Russell-Smith2005">{{cite book|author=Lilla Russell-Smith|title=Uygur Patronage In Dunhuang: Regional Art Centres On The Northern Silk Road In The Tenth and Eleventh Centuries|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hzsnT67gykkC&pg=PA63#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=2005|publisher=BRILL|isbn=90-04-14241-X|pages=63–}}</ref><ref name="DuanTan1994">{{cite book|author1=Wenjie Duan|author2=Chung Tan|title=Dunhuang Art: Through the Eyes of Duan Wenjie|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0SdXEVaFTJ0C&pg=PA189&dq=Cao+Yijin+Shengtian&hl=en&sa=X&ei=xMo9VIbFM67lsAT-4YKgCA&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Cao%20Yijin%20Shengtian&f=false|date=1 January 1994|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-313-7|pages=189–}}</ref>
The Chinese Cao family ruling [[Guiyi Circuit]] established marriage alliances with the Uighurs of the Ganzhou Kingdom, with both the Cao rulers marrying Uighur princesses and with Cao princesses marrying Uighur rulers. The Ganzhou Uighur Khagan's daughter was married to Cao Yijin in 916.<ref>{{cite book|title=Eighteen Lectures on Dunhuang|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HvIa9sere_8C&pg=PA44#v=onepage&q&f=false|date=7 June 2013|publisher=BRILL|isbn=90-04-25233-9|pages=44–}}</ref><ref name="Russell-Smith2005">{{cite book|author=Lilla Russell-Smith|title=Uygur Patronage In Dunhuang: Regional Art Centres On The Northern Silk Road In The Tenth and Eleventh Centuries|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hzsnT67gykkC&pg=PA63#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=2005|publisher=BRILL|isbn=90-04-14241-X|pages=63–}}</ref><ref name="DuanTan1994">{{cite book|author1=Wenjie Duan|author2=Chung Tan|title=Dunhuang Art: Through the Eyes of Duan Wenjie|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0SdXEVaFTJ0C&pg=PA189&dq=Cao+Yijin+Shengtian&hl=en&sa=X&ei=xMo9VIbFM67lsAT-4YKgCA&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Cao%20Yijin%20Shengtian&f=false|date=1 January 1994|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-313-7|pages=189–}}</ref>


===Kingdom of Khotan===
==Kingdom of Khotan==
[[File:Dunhuang Mogao cave Cao donor figures.jpg|thumb|right|A daughter of the King of Khotan married to the ruler of [[Dunhuang]], Cao Yanlu, is here shown wearing elaborate headdress decorated with jade pieces. Mural in [[Mogao Caves|Mogao Cave]] 61, [[Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period|Five Dynasties]].]]
[[File:Dunhuang Mogao cave Cao donor figures.jpg|thumb|right|A daughter of the King of Khotan married to the ruler of [[Dunhuang]], Cao Yanlu, is here shown wearing elaborate headdress decorated with jade pieces. Mural in [[Mogao Caves|Mogao Cave]] 61, [[Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period|Five Dynasties]].]]


The Chinese Cao family ruling [[Guiyi Circuit]] established marriage alliances with the Saka [[Kingdom of Khotan]], with both the Cao rulers marrying Khotanese princesses and with Cao princesses marrying Khotanese rulers. A Khotanese princess who was the daughter of the King of Khotan married Cao Yanlu.<ref name="Russell-Smith2005 2">{{cite book|author=Lilla Russell-Smith|title=Uygur Patronage In Dunhuang: Regional Art Centres On The Northern Silk Road In The Tenth and Eleventh Centuries|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hzsnT67gykkC&pg=PA23&dq=Cao+Yanlu+Khotan&hl=en&sa=X&ei=Xz_FVNuqNsuqggTok4LIBA&ved=0CCIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Cao%20Yanlu%20Khotan&f=false|year=2005|publisher=BRILL|isbn=90-04-14241-X|pages=23–}}</ref>
The Chinese Cao family ruling [[Guiyi Circuit]] established marriage alliances with the Saka [[Kingdom of Khotan]], with both the Cao rulers marrying Khotanese princesses and with Cao princesses marrying Khotanese rulers. A Khotanese princess who was the daughter of the King of Khotan married Cao Yanlu.<ref name="Russell-Smith2005 2">{{cite book|author=Lilla Russell-Smith|title=Uygur Patronage In Dunhuang: Regional Art Centres On The Northern Silk Road In The Tenth and Eleventh Centuries|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hzsnT67gykkC&pg=PA23&dq=Cao+Yanlu+Khotan&hl=en&sa=X&ei=Xz_FVNuqNsuqggTok4LIBA&ved=0CCIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Cao%20Yanlu%20Khotan&f=false|year=2005|publisher=BRILL|isbn=90-04-14241-X|pages=23–}}</ref>


===Liao dynasty===
==Liao dynasty==
The [[Khitan people|Khitan]] [[Liao dynasty]] arranged for women from the Khitan royal consort Xiao clan to marry members of the Han Chinese Han 韓 clan, which originated in Jizhou 冀州 before being abducted by the Khitan and becoming part of the Han Chinese elite of the Liao.<ref>[https://www.academia.edu/3806884/Michal_Biran._Khitan_Migrations_in_Inner_Asia_Central_Eurasian_Studies_3_2012_85-108 Biran 2012, p. 88.]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20140414060414/http://cces.snu.ac.kr/article/jces3_4biran.pdf Biran 2012, p. 88.]</ref><ref>[http://arizona.openrepository.com/arizona/bitstream/10150/195429/1/azu_etd_1292_sip1_m.pdf Cha 2005], p. 51. [http://arizona.openrepository.com/arizona/handle/10150/195429][http://sunzi.lib.hku.hk/ER/detail/hkul/3631975][https://www.amazon.co.uk/lives-907-1125-aristocratic-women-China/dp/0542321823]</ref>
The [[Khitan people|Khitan]] [[Liao dynasty]] arranged for women from the Khitan royal consort Xiao clan to marry members of the Han Chinese Han 韓 clan, which originated in Jizhou 冀州 before being abducted by the Khitan and becoming part of the Han Chinese elite of the Liao.<ref>[https://www.academia.edu/3806884/Michal_Biran._Khitan_Migrations_in_Inner_Asia_Central_Eurasian_Studies_3_2012_85-108 Biran 2012, p. 88.]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20140414060414/http://cces.snu.ac.kr/article/jces3_4biran.pdf Biran 2012, p. 88.]</ref><ref>[http://arizona.openrepository.com/arizona/bitstream/10150/195429/1/azu_etd_1292_sip1_m.pdf Cha 2005], p. 51. [http://arizona.openrepository.com/arizona/handle/10150/195429][http://sunzi.lib.hku.hk/ER/detail/hkul/3631975][https://www.amazon.co.uk/lives-907-1125-aristocratic-women-China/dp/0542321823]</ref>


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Han Durang (Yelu Longyun) was the father of Queen dowager of State Chen, who was the wife of General Geng Yanyi and buried with him in his tomb in Zhaoyang in Liaoning.<ref>{{cite book|title=Orient|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SWttAAAAMAAJ&q=2+in+Zhaoyang,+Liaoning+According+to+the+epitaph,+this+tomb+is+the+burial+place+of+General+Geng+Yanyi+and+Queen+dowager+of+State+Chen.+General+Geng+Yanyi%27s+...+Queen+dowager+of+State+Chen%27s+father+was+Han+Durang+%28Yelu+Longyun%29+...&dq=2+in+Zhaoyang,+Liaoning+According+to+the+epitaph,+this+tomb+is+the+burial+place+of+General+Geng+Yanyi+and+Queen+dowager+of+State+Chen.+General+Geng+Yanyi%27s+...+Queen+dowager+of+State+Chen%27s+father+was+Han+Durang+%28Yelu+Longyun%29+...&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CCAQ6AEwAGoVChMIjbqFi-7bxwIViVQ-Ch1kRAXx|year=2004|publisher=Maruzen Company|page=41}}</ref> His wife was also known as "Madame Han".<ref name="ShenSociety2006">{{cite book|author1=Hsueh-man Shen|author2=Asia Society|author3=Asia Society. Museum|author4=Museum für Ostasiatische Kunst (Berlin, Germany), Museum Rietberg|title=Gilded splendor: treasures of China's Liao Empire (907-1125)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WX8YAAAAYAAJ&q=...+like+this+example.+but+made+from+gray+and+green+sandstone+were+excavated+from+the+tomb+of+Geng+Yanyi+and+his+wife.1+Geng+Yanyi+was+a+highly+decorated+Chinese+official+who+served+the+Liao+government,+and+his+wife,+Madame+Han,+was+...&dq=...+like+this+example.+but+made+from+gray+and+green+sandstone+were+excavated+from+the+tomb+of+Geng+Yanyi+and+his+wife.1+Geng+Yanyi+was+a+highly+decorated+Chinese+official+who+served+the+Liao+government,+and+his+wife,+Madame+Han,+was+...&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CCAQ6AEwAGoVChMI7s-BiO7bxwIVgQg-Ch1a0Qoz|date=1 September 2006|publisher=5 continents|isbn=978-88-7439-332-9|page=106}}</ref> The Geng's tomb is located in Liaoning at Guyingzi in Chaoying.<ref name="An1987">{{cite book|author=Jiayao An|title=Early Chinese Glassware|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jnzrAAAAMAAJ&q=27%29+Glass+handled+cup+%28excavated+from+the+tomb+of+the+Geng+family+at+Guyingzi,+Chaoyang,+Liaoning%29+[pi.+V11.6]+...+27%29+was+found+in+the+tomb+of+Geng+Yanyi+of+the+Liao+period,+at+Guyingzi,+Chaoyang,+Liaoning+province.1391+It+is+of+transparent+dark+green+glass+containing+...+29%29+Glass+eared+cup+%28excavated+from+Han+tomb+no.&dq=27%29+Glass+handled+cup+%28excavated+from+the+tomb+of+the+Geng+family+at+Guyingzi,+Chaoyang,+Liaoning%29+[pi.+V11.6]+...+27%29+was+found+in+the+tomb+of+Geng+Yanyi+of+the+Liao+period,+at+Guyingzi,+Chaoyang,+Liaoning+province.1391+It+is+of+transparent+dark+green+glass+containing+...+29%29+Glass+eared+cup+%28excavated+from+Han+tomb+no.&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CB0Q6AEwAGoVChMIjfiLmO7bxwIVSBw-Ch3a-gHQ|year=1987|publisher=Millennia|page=12}}</ref><ref>http://kt82.zhaoxinpeng.com/view/138019.htm{{dead link|date=September 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} https://www.academia.edu/4954295/La_Steppe_et_l_Empire_la_formation_de_la_dynastie_Khitan_Liao_</ref>
Han Durang (Yelu Longyun) was the father of Queen dowager of State Chen, who was the wife of General Geng Yanyi and buried with him in his tomb in Zhaoyang in Liaoning.<ref>{{cite book|title=Orient|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SWttAAAAMAAJ&q=2+in+Zhaoyang,+Liaoning+According+to+the+epitaph,+this+tomb+is+the+burial+place+of+General+Geng+Yanyi+and+Queen+dowager+of+State+Chen.+General+Geng+Yanyi%27s+...+Queen+dowager+of+State+Chen%27s+father+was+Han+Durang+%28Yelu+Longyun%29+...&dq=2+in+Zhaoyang,+Liaoning+According+to+the+epitaph,+this+tomb+is+the+burial+place+of+General+Geng+Yanyi+and+Queen+dowager+of+State+Chen.+General+Geng+Yanyi%27s+...+Queen+dowager+of+State+Chen%27s+father+was+Han+Durang+%28Yelu+Longyun%29+...&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CCAQ6AEwAGoVChMIjbqFi-7bxwIViVQ-Ch1kRAXx|year=2004|publisher=Maruzen Company|page=41}}</ref> His wife was also known as "Madame Han".<ref name="ShenSociety2006">{{cite book|author1=Hsueh-man Shen|author2=Asia Society|author3=Asia Society. Museum|author4=Museum für Ostasiatische Kunst (Berlin, Germany), Museum Rietberg|title=Gilded splendor: treasures of China's Liao Empire (907-1125)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WX8YAAAAYAAJ&q=...+like+this+example.+but+made+from+gray+and+green+sandstone+were+excavated+from+the+tomb+of+Geng+Yanyi+and+his+wife.1+Geng+Yanyi+was+a+highly+decorated+Chinese+official+who+served+the+Liao+government,+and+his+wife,+Madame+Han,+was+...&dq=...+like+this+example.+but+made+from+gray+and+green+sandstone+were+excavated+from+the+tomb+of+Geng+Yanyi+and+his+wife.1+Geng+Yanyi+was+a+highly+decorated+Chinese+official+who+served+the+Liao+government,+and+his+wife,+Madame+Han,+was+...&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CCAQ6AEwAGoVChMI7s-BiO7bxwIVgQg-Ch1a0Qoz|date=1 September 2006|publisher=5 continents|isbn=978-88-7439-332-9|page=106}}</ref> The Geng's tomb is located in Liaoning at Guyingzi in Chaoying.<ref name="An1987">{{cite book|author=Jiayao An|title=Early Chinese Glassware|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jnzrAAAAMAAJ&q=27%29+Glass+handled+cup+%28excavated+from+the+tomb+of+the+Geng+family+at+Guyingzi,+Chaoyang,+Liaoning%29+[pi.+V11.6]+...+27%29+was+found+in+the+tomb+of+Geng+Yanyi+of+the+Liao+period,+at+Guyingzi,+Chaoyang,+Liaoning+province.1391+It+is+of+transparent+dark+green+glass+containing+...+29%29+Glass+eared+cup+%28excavated+from+Han+tomb+no.&dq=27%29+Glass+handled+cup+%28excavated+from+the+tomb+of+the+Geng+family+at+Guyingzi,+Chaoyang,+Liaoning%29+[pi.+V11.6]+...+27%29+was+found+in+the+tomb+of+Geng+Yanyi+of+the+Liao+period,+at+Guyingzi,+Chaoyang,+Liaoning+province.1391+It+is+of+transparent+dark+green+glass+containing+...+29%29+Glass+eared+cup+%28excavated+from+Han+tomb+no.&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CB0Q6AEwAGoVChMIjfiLmO7bxwIVSBw-Ch3a-gHQ|year=1987|publisher=Millennia|page=12}}</ref><ref>http://kt82.zhaoxinpeng.com/view/138019.htm{{dead link|date=September 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} https://www.academia.edu/4954295/La_Steppe_et_l_Empire_la_formation_de_la_dynastie_Khitan_Liao_</ref>


===Lý dynasty Vietnam===
==Lý dynasty Vietnam==
The [[Lý dynasty]] which ruled [[Dai Viet]] (Vietnam) married its princesses off to regional rivals to establish alliances with them. One of these marriages was between a Lý princess ([[Lý Chiêu Hoàng]]) and a member of the Chinese Trần (Chen) clan ([[Trần Thái Tông]]), which enabled the Trần to then topple the Lý and established their own [[Trần dynasty]].<ref name="Hall2008">{{cite book|author=Kenneth R. Hall |title=Secondary Cities and Urban Networking in the Indian Ocean Realm, C. 1400-1800 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gyPjBevBHxcC&pg=PA159&dq=tran+fujian&hl=en&sa=X&ei=XiPNVPrfH4WgNsWpgagC&ved=0CD8Q6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=tran%20fujian&f=false |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150622232838/https://books.google.com/books?id=gyPjBevBHxcC&pg=PA159&dq=tran+fujian&hl=en&sa=X&ei=XiPNVPrfH4WgNsWpgagC&ved=0CD8Q6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=tran%20fujian&f=false |archivedate=22 June 2015 |year=2008 |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=978-0-7391-2835-0 |pages=159– |deadurl=yes |df= }}</ref><ref name="EmbreeLewis1988">{{cite book|author1=Ainslie Thomas Embree |author2=Robin Jeanne Lewis |title=Encyclopedia of Asian history |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cNwpAQAAMAAJ&q=tran+fujian&dq=tran+fujian&hl=en&sa=X&ei=1iPNVKSgKoS4ggTd6oDgCw&ved=0CCIQ6AEwATge |archiveurl=https://archive.is/20161022122029/https://books.google.com/books?id=cNwpAQAAMAAJ&q=tran+fujian&dq=tran+fujian&hl=en&sa=X&ei=1iPNVKSgKoS4ggTd6oDgCw&ved=0CCIQ6AEwATge |deadurl=no |archivedate=22 October 2016 |accessdate=22 October 2016 |year=1988 |publisher=Scribner |page=190 |df= }}</ref>
The [[Lý dynasty]] which ruled [[Dai Viet]] (Vietnam) married its princesses off to regional rivals to establish alliances with them. One of these marriages was between a Lý princess ([[Lý Chiêu Hoàng]]) and a member of the Chinese Trần (Chen) clan ([[Trần Thái Tông]]), which enabled the Trần to then topple the Lý and established their own [[Trần dynasty]].<ref name="Hall2008">{{cite book|author=Kenneth R. Hall |title=Secondary Cities and Urban Networking in the Indian Ocean Realm, C. 1400-1800 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gyPjBevBHxcC&pg=PA159&dq=tran+fujian&hl=en&sa=X&ei=XiPNVPrfH4WgNsWpgagC&ved=0CD8Q6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=tran%20fujian&f=false |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150622232838/https://books.google.com/books?id=gyPjBevBHxcC&pg=PA159&dq=tran+fujian&hl=en&sa=X&ei=XiPNVPrfH4WgNsWpgagC&ved=0CD8Q6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=tran%20fujian&f=false |archivedate=22 June 2015 |year=2008 |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=978-0-7391-2835-0 |pages=159– |deadurl=yes |df= }}</ref><ref name="EmbreeLewis1988">{{cite book|author1=Ainslie Thomas Embree |author2=Robin Jeanne Lewis |title=Encyclopedia of Asian history |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cNwpAQAAMAAJ&q=tran+fujian&dq=tran+fujian&hl=en&sa=X&ei=1iPNVKSgKoS4ggTd6oDgCw&ved=0CCIQ6AEwATge |archiveurl=https://archive.is/20161022122029/https://books.google.com/books?id=cNwpAQAAMAAJ&q=tran+fujian&dq=tran+fujian&hl=en&sa=X&ei=1iPNVKSgKoS4ggTd6oDgCw&ved=0CCIQ6AEwATge |deadurl=no |archivedate=22 October 2016 |accessdate=22 October 2016 |year=1988 |publisher=Scribner |page=190 |df= }}</ref>


A Lý princess also married into the Hồ family, which was also of Chinese origin and later established the [[Hồ dynasty]] which also took power after having a Tran princess marry one of their members, [[Hồ Quý Ly]].<ref name="Taylor2013">{{cite book|author=K. W. Taylor|title=A History of the Vietnamese|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P2HP31kOSA4C&pg=PA166#v=onepage&q&f=false|date=9 May 2013|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-87586-8|pages=166–}}</ref><ref name="Hall2008 2">{{cite book|author=Kenneth R. Hall|title=Secondary Cities and Urban Networking in the Indian Ocean Realm, C. 1400-1800|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gyPjBevBHxcC&pg=PA161#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=2008|publisher=Lexington Books|isbn=978-0-7391-2835-0|pages=161–}}</ref>
A Lý princess also married into the Hồ family, which was also of Chinese origin and later established the [[Hồ dynasty]] which also took power after having a Tran princess marry one of their members, [[Hồ Quý Ly]].<ref name="Taylor2013">{{cite book|author=K. W. Taylor|title=A History of the Vietnamese|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P2HP31kOSA4C&pg=PA166#v=onepage&q&f=false|date=9 May 2013|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-87586-8|pages=166–}}</ref><ref name="Hall2008 2">{{cite book|author=Kenneth R. Hall|title=Secondary Cities and Urban Networking in the Indian Ocean Realm, C. 1400-1800|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gyPjBevBHxcC&pg=PA161#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=2008|publisher=Lexington Books|isbn=978-0-7391-2835-0|pages=161–}}</ref>
⚫
==Joseon Korea==

⚫
===Qing dynasty===

The [[Manchu people|Manchu]] Imperial [[Aisin Gioro]] clan practiced marriage alliances with Han Chinese Ming Generals and Mongol princes. In addition to numerous Han Chinese women who were conscripted into the Manchu royal concubine system, Aisin Gioro women were married to Han Chinese Generals who defected to the Manchu side during the [[Manchu conquest of China]]. The Manchu leader [[Nurhaci]] married one of his granddaughters to the Ming General [[Li Yongfang]] [[w:zh:李永芳|李永芳]] after he surrendered [[Fushun]] in [[Liaoning]] to the Manchu in 1618 and a mass marriage of Han Chinese officers and officials to Manchu women numbering 1,000 couples was arranged by Prince Yoto [[w:zh:岳托|岳托]] ([[Prince Keqin]]) and [[Hongtaiji]] in 1632 to promote harmony between the two ethnic groups.<ref name="Walthall2008">{{cite book|author=Anne Walthall|title=Servants of the Dynasty: Palace Women in World History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QXHbhsfaJAYC&pg=PA148&dq=To+win+the+support+and+cooperation+of+Ming+generals+in+Liaodong,+Nurhaci+gave+them+Aisin+Gioro+women+as+wives.+In+1618,+before+he+attacked+Fushun+city,+he+promised+the+Ming+general+defending+the+city+a+woman+from+the+Aisin+Gioro+clan&hl=en&ei=O-ChToi7Jsn20gHW4ayvCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=To%20win%20the%20support%20and%20cooperation%20of%20Ming%20generals%20in%20Liaodong%2C%20Nurhaci%20gave%20them%20Aisin%20Gioro%20women%20as%20wives.%20In%201618%2C%20before%20he%20attacked%20Fushun%20city%2C%20he%20promised%20the%20Ming%20general%20defending%20the%20city%20a%20woman%20from%20the%20Aisin%20Gioro%20clan&f=false|year=2008|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-25444-2|pages=148–}}</ref><ref name="Wakeman1977">{{cite book|author=Frederic Wakeman|title=Fall of Imperial China|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ORBmFSFcJKoC&pg=PA79&dq=Li+was+made+a+banner+general,+was+given+gifts+of+slaves+and+serfs,+and+was+betrothed+to+a+young+woman+of+the+Aisin+Gioro+clan.+Although+Li%27s+surrender+at+the+time+was+exceptional,+his+integration+into+the+Manchu+elite+was+only+the+first&hl=en&ei=WuGhTtyJO6Lx0gHC16WfBQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Li%20was%20made%20a%20banner%20general%2C%20was%20given%20gifts%20of%20slaves%20and%20serfs%2C%20and%20was%20betrothed%20to%20a%20young%20woman%20of%20the%20Aisin%20Gioro%20clan.%20Although%20Li%27s%20surrender%20at%20the%20time%20was%20exceptional%2C%20his%20integration%20into%20the%20Manchu%20elite%20was%20only%20the%20first&f=false|date=1 January 1977|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-0-02-933680-9|pages=79–}}</ref> Aisin Gioro women were married to the sons of the Han Chinese Generals [[Sun Sike]] (Sun Ssu-k'o) [[w:zh:孫思克|孫思克]], [[Geng Jimao]] (Keng Chi-mao), [[Shang Kexi]] (Shang K'o-hsi), and [[Wu Sangui]] (Wu San-kuei).<ref name="Watson1991 2">{{cite book|author=Rubie Sharon Watson|title=Marriage and Inequality in Chinese Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gAIcwz3V_JsC&pg=PA179#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=1991|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-07124-7|pages=179–180}}</ref>

Nurhaci's son [[Abatai]]'s daughter was married to Li Yongfang.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.lishiquwen.com/news/7356.html |title=Archived copy |access-date=2018-04-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171203055230/http://www.lishiquwen.com/news/7356.html |archive-date=2017-12-03 |dead-url=yes |df= }}</ref><ref>http://www.fs7000.com/wap/?9179.html{{dead link|date=April 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>http://www.75800.com.cn/lx2/pAjRqK/9N6KahmKbgWLa1mRb1iyc_.html</ref><ref>https://read01.com/aP055D.html</ref> The offspring of Li received the "Third Class Viscount" ({{zh|c=三等子爵|p=sān děng zǐjué|labels=no}}) title.<ref name="Rawski1998">{{cite book|author=Evelyn S. Rawski|title=The Last Emperors: A Social History of Qing Imperial Institutions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5iN5J9G76h0C&pg=PA72#v=onepage&q&f=false|date=15 November 1998|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-92679-0|pages=72–}}</ref> Li Yongfang was the great great great grandfather of Li Shiyao [[w:zh:李侍堯|李侍堯]].<ref>http://www.dartmouth.edu/~qing/WEB/LI_SHIH-YAO.html</ref><ref>http://12103081.wenhua.danyy.com/library1210shtml30810106630060.html</ref>

The "Dolo efu" 和碩額駙 rank was given to husbands of Qing princesses. [[Geng Zhongming]], a Han bannerman, was awarded the title of Prince Jingnan, and his son [[Geng Jingmao]] managed to have both his sons [[Geng Jingzhong]] and Geng Zhaozhong 耿昭忠 become court attendants under the [[Shunzhi Emperor]] and get married to Aisin Gioro women, with Prince [[Abatai]]'s granddaughter marrying Geng Zhaozhong 耿昭忠 and [[Hooge (prince)|Haoge]]'s (a son of Hong Taiji) daughter marrying Geng Jingzhong.<ref name="JR.1985">{{cite book|author=FREDERIC WAKEMAN JR.|title=The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-century China|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8nXLwSG2O8AC&pg=PA1017#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=1985|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-04804-1|pages=1017–}}</ref> A daughter [[w:zh:和硕柔嘉公主|和硕柔嘉公主]] of the Manchu Aisin Gioro Prince Yolo [[w:zh:岳樂|岳樂]] ([[Prince An]]) was wedded to Geng Juzhong [[w:zh:耿聚忠|耿聚忠]] who was another son of Geng Jingmao.<ref name="JR.1985 2">{{cite book|author=FREDERIC WAKEMAN JR.|title=The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-century China|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8nXLwSG2O8AC&pg=PA1018#v=onepage&q&f=false6|year=1985|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-04804-1|pages=1018–}}</ref>

The 4th daughter of Kangxi ([[w:zh:和硕悫靖公主|和硕悫靖公主]]) was wedded to the son ([[w:zh:孫承恩|孫承恩]]) of the Han Chinese Sun Sike (Sun Ssu-k'o) [[w:zh:孫思克|孫思克]].<ref name="Watson1991 3">{{cite book|author=Rubie Sharon Watson|title=Marriage and Inequality in Chinese Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gAIcwz3V_JsC&pg=PA179#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=1991|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-07124-7|pages=179–}}</ref>

Imperial Duke Who Assists the State (宗室輔國公) Aisin Gioro Suyan's (蘇燕) daughter was married to Han Chinese Banner General [[Nian Gengyao]].<ref name="唐博2010">{{cite book|author=唐博|title=清朝權臣回憶錄|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JSi4AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA108&dq=%E8%BC%94%E5%9C%8B%E5%85%AC%E8%98%87%E7%87%95&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiE_bLcwOLOAhUElR4KHZkXAq8Q6AEIQTAF#v=onepage&q=%E8%BC%94%E5%9C%8B%E5%85%AC%E8%98%87%E7%87%95&f=false|year=2010|publisher=遠流出版|isbn=978-957-32-6691-4|pages=108–}}</ref><ref name="施樹祿2012">{{cite book|author=施樹祿|title=世界歷史戰事傳奇|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ODdaBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA198&dq=%E8%BC%94%E5%9C%8B%E5%85%AC%E8%98%87%E7%87%95&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiE_bLcwOLOAhUElR4KHZkXAq8Q6AEILDAC#v=onepage&q=%E8%BC%94%E5%9C%8B%E5%85%AC%E8%98%87%E7%87%95&f=false|date=17 May 2012|publisher=華志文化|isbn=978-986-5936-00-6|pages=198–}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=|first=|date=7 March 2016|title=清代第一战神是谁? 年羹尧和岳钟琪谁的成就更高?|url=http://www.lishi.com/news/201603/7645.html|newspaper=历史网|location=|access-date=|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160828192434/http://www.lishi.com/news/201603/7645.html|archive-date=28 August 2016|dead-url=yes|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

⚫
===Joseon Korea===


After the [[Second Manchu invasion of Korea]], [[Joseon]] Korea provided several of their royal princesses as concubines to the Qing Manchu regent Prince [[Dorgon]] who traced his lineage to Koryo Korea originally near the Paektu (Changbai) Mountains.<ref name="ThackerayFindling2012">{{cite book|author1=Frank W. Thackeray |author2=John E. Findling |title=Events That Formed the Modern World |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BRl1sWYShpcC&pg=RA1-PA200&dq=dorgon+korean+princess&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KaNsVbuZC8KEsAXjy4HoDQ&ved=0CB4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=dorgon%20korean%20princess&f=false |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924000057/https://books.google.com/books?id=BRl1sWYShpcC&pg=RA1-PA200&dq=dorgon+korean+princess&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KaNsVbuZC8KEsAXjy4HoDQ&ved=0CB4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=dorgon%20korean%20princess&f=false |archivedate=24 September 2015 |accessdate=22 October 2016 |deadurl=no |date=31 May 2012 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-59884-901-1 |pages=200– |df= }}</ref><ref name="Hummel1991">{{cite book|author=Arthur W. Hummel |title=Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing period: 1644-1912 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YqNHAQAAIAAJ&q=dorgon+korean+princess&dq=dorgon+korean+princess&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KaNsVbuZC8KEsAXjy4HoDQ&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAw |archiveurl=https://archive.is/20161022124057/https://books.google.com/books?id=YqNHAQAAIAAJ&q=dorgon+korean+princess&dq=dorgon+korean+princess&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KaNsVbuZC8KEsAXjy4HoDQ&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAw |archivedate=22 October 2016 |accessdate=22 October 2016 |deadurl=no |year=1991 |publisher=SMC publ. |isbn=978-957-638-066-2 |page=217 |df= }}</ref><ref name="Division1943">{{cite book|author=Library of Congress. Orientalia Division |title=清代名人傳略: 1644-1912 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hs8LhXwRqPgC&q=dorgon+korean+princess&dq=dorgon+korean+princess&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KaNsVbuZC8KEsAXjy4HoDQ&ved=0CDUQ6AEwBA |archiveurl=https://archive.is/20161022133653/https://books.google.com/books?id=Hs8LhXwRqPgC&q=dorgon+korean+princess&dq=dorgon+korean+princess&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KaNsVbuZC8KEsAXjy4HoDQ&ved=0CDUQ6AEwBA |archivedate=22 October 2016 |accessdate=22 October 2016 |deadurl=no |year=1943 |publisher=經文書局 |page=217 |df= }}</ref><ref name="JR.1985 3">{{cite book|author=FREDERIC WAKEMAN JR. |title=The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-century China |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8nXLwSG2O8AC&pg=PA892&dq=dorgon+korean+princess&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KaNsVbuZC8KEsAXjy4HoDQ&ved=0CDkQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=dorgon%20korean%20princess&f=false |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150930140358/https://books.google.com/books?id=8nXLwSG2O8AC&pg=PA892&dq=dorgon+korean+princess&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KaNsVbuZC8KEsAXjy4HoDQ&ved=0CDkQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=dorgon%20korean%20princess&f=false |archivedate=30 September 2015 |accessdate=22 October 2016 |deadurl=no |year=1985 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-04804-1 |pages=892– |df= }}</ref><ref name="Dawson1972">{{cite book|author=Raymond Stanley Dawson |title=Imperial China |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H5AKAQAAIAAJ&q=dorgon+korean+princess&dq=dorgon+korean+princess&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KaNsVbuZC8KEsAXjy4HoDQ&ved=0CD8Q6AEwBg |archiveurl=https://archive.is/20161022134507/https://books.google.com/books?id=H5AKAQAAIAAJ&q=dorgon+korean+princess&dq=dorgon+korean+princess&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KaNsVbuZC8KEsAXjy4HoDQ&ved=0CD8Q6AEwBg |deadurl=no |archivedate=22 October 2016 |accessdate=22 October 2016 |year=1972 |publisher=Hutchinson |page=275 |df= }}</ref><ref name="Dawson1976">{{cite book|author=Raymond Stanley Dawson|title=Imperial China|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AFtxAAAAMAAJ&q=and+for+the+first+seven+years+of+his+young+nephew%27s+reign+Dorgon+exercised+supreme+power+and+laid+the+firm+foundations+...+Power+seems+to+have+gone+to+his+head,+for+he+ordered+the+King+of+Korea+to+send+princesses+to+be+his+concubines+and+...&dq=and+for+the+first+seven+years+of+his+young+nephew%27s+reign+Dorgon+exercised+supreme+power+and+laid+the+firm+foundations+...+Power+seems+to+have+gone+to+his+head,+for+he+ordered+the+King+of+Korea+to+send+princesses+to+be+his+concubines+and+...&hl=en&sa=X&ei=6aZsVdTuM4v3yQSQnoO4Dg&ved=0CCAQ6AEwAA|year=1976|publisher=Penguin|page=306}}</ref><ref>[http://www.dartmouth.edu/~qing/WEB/DORGON.html DORGON]</ref> In 1650, Dorgon married the Korean [[Princess Uisun]] (義順).<ref>{{cite book|title=梨大史苑 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IN42AAAAIAAJ&q=dorgon+korean+princess&dq=dorgon+korean+princess&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KaNsVbuZC8KEsAXjy4HoDQ&ved=0CCUQ6AEwAQ |archiveurl=https://archive.is/20161022134944/https://books.google.com/books?id=IN42AAAAIAAJ&q=dorgon+korean+princess&dq=dorgon+korean+princess&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KaNsVbuZC8KEsAXjy4HoDQ&ved=0CCUQ6AEwAQ |deadurl=no |archivedate=22 October 2016 |accessdate=22 October 2016 |year=1968 |publisher=梨大史學會 |page=105 |df= }}</ref> She was a collateral branches of the Korean royal family, and daughter of Yi Gae-yun (李愷胤).<ref>http://www.gachonherald.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=32</ref> Dorgon married two Korean princesses at Lianshan.<ref name="Ling1995">{{cite book|author=Li Ling |title=Son of Heaven |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ajcaAQAAIAAJ&q=dorgon+korean+princess&dq=dorgon+korean+princess&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KaNsVbuZC8KEsAXjy4HoDQ&ved=0CEQQ6AEwBw |archiveurl=https://archive.is/20161022135113/https://books.google.com/books?id=ajcaAQAAIAAJ&q=dorgon+korean+princess&dq=dorgon+korean+princess&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KaNsVbuZC8KEsAXjy4HoDQ&ved=0CEQQ6AEwBw |deadurl=no |archivedate=22 October 2016 |accessdate=22 October 2016 |year=1995 |publisher=Chinese Literature Press |isbn=978-7-5071-0288-8 |page=217 |df= }}</ref>
After the [[Second Manchu invasion of Korea]], [[Joseon]] Korea provided several of their royal princesses as concubines to the Qing Manchu regent Prince [[Dorgon]] who traced his lineage to Koryo Korea originally near the Paektu (Changbai) Mountains.<ref name="ThackerayFindling2012">{{cite book|author1=Frank W. Thackeray |author2=John E. Findling |title=Events That Formed the Modern World |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BRl1sWYShpcC&pg=RA1-PA200&dq=dorgon+korean+princess&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KaNsVbuZC8KEsAXjy4HoDQ&ved=0CB4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=dorgon%20korean%20princess&f=false |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924000057/https://books.google.com/books?id=BRl1sWYShpcC&pg=RA1-PA200&dq=dorgon+korean+princess&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KaNsVbuZC8KEsAXjy4HoDQ&ved=0CB4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=dorgon%20korean%20princess&f=false |archivedate=24 September 2015 |accessdate=22 October 2016 |deadurl=no |date=31 May 2012 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-59884-901-1 |pages=200– |df= }}</ref><ref name="Hummel1991">{{cite book|author=Arthur W. Hummel |title=Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing period: 1644-1912 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YqNHAQAAIAAJ&q=dorgon+korean+princess&dq=dorgon+korean+princess&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KaNsVbuZC8KEsAXjy4HoDQ&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAw |archiveurl=https://archive.is/20161022124057/https://books.google.com/books?id=YqNHAQAAIAAJ&q=dorgon+korean+princess&dq=dorgon+korean+princess&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KaNsVbuZC8KEsAXjy4HoDQ&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAw |archivedate=22 October 2016 |accessdate=22 October 2016 |deadurl=no |year=1991 |publisher=SMC publ. |isbn=978-957-638-066-2 |page=217 |df= }}</ref><ref name="Division1943">{{cite book|author=Library of Congress. Orientalia Division |title=清代名人傳略: 1644-1912 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hs8LhXwRqPgC&q=dorgon+korean+princess&dq=dorgon+korean+princess&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KaNsVbuZC8KEsAXjy4HoDQ&ved=0CDUQ6AEwBA |archiveurl=https://archive.is/20161022133653/https://books.google.com/books?id=Hs8LhXwRqPgC&q=dorgon+korean+princess&dq=dorgon+korean+princess&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KaNsVbuZC8KEsAXjy4HoDQ&ved=0CDUQ6AEwBA |archivedate=22 October 2016 |accessdate=22 October 2016 |deadurl=no |year=1943 |publisher=經文書局 |page=217 |df= }}</ref><ref name="JR.1985 3">{{cite book|author=FREDERIC WAKEMAN JR. |title=The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-century China |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8nXLwSG2O8AC&pg=PA892&dq=dorgon+korean+princess&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KaNsVbuZC8KEsAXjy4HoDQ&ved=0CDkQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=dorgon%20korean%20princess&f=false |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150930140358/https://books.google.com/books?id=8nXLwSG2O8AC&pg=PA892&dq=dorgon+korean+princess&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KaNsVbuZC8KEsAXjy4HoDQ&ved=0CDkQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=dorgon%20korean%20princess&f=false |archivedate=30 September 2015 |accessdate=22 October 2016 |deadurl=no |year=1985 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-04804-1 |pages=892– |df= }}</ref><ref name="Dawson1972">{{cite book|author=Raymond Stanley Dawson |title=Imperial China |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H5AKAQAAIAAJ&q=dorgon+korean+princess&dq=dorgon+korean+princess&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KaNsVbuZC8KEsAXjy4HoDQ&ved=0CD8Q6AEwBg |archiveurl=https://archive.is/20161022134507/https://books.google.com/books?id=H5AKAQAAIAAJ&q=dorgon+korean+princess&dq=dorgon+korean+princess&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KaNsVbuZC8KEsAXjy4HoDQ&ved=0CD8Q6AEwBg |deadurl=no |archivedate=22 October 2016 |accessdate=22 October 2016 |year=1972 |publisher=Hutchinson |page=275 |df= }}</ref><ref name="Dawson1976">{{cite book|author=Raymond Stanley Dawson|title=Imperial China|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AFtxAAAAMAAJ&q=and+for+the+first+seven+years+of+his+young+nephew%27s+reign+Dorgon+exercised+supreme+power+and+laid+the+firm+foundations+...+Power+seems+to+have+gone+to+his+head,+for+he+ordered+the+King+of+Korea+to+send+princesses+to+be+his+concubines+and+...&dq=and+for+the+first+seven+years+of+his+young+nephew%27s+reign+Dorgon+exercised+supreme+power+and+laid+the+firm+foundations+...+Power+seems+to+have+gone+to+his+head,+for+he+ordered+the+King+of+Korea+to+send+princesses+to+be+his+concubines+and+...&hl=en&sa=X&ei=6aZsVdTuM4v3yQSQnoO4Dg&ved=0CCAQ6AEwAA|year=1976|publisher=Penguin|page=306}}</ref><ref>[http://www.dartmouth.edu/~qing/WEB/DORGON.html DORGON]</ref> In 1650, Dorgon married the Korean [[Princess Uisun]] (義順).<ref>{{cite book|title=梨大史苑 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IN42AAAAIAAJ&q=dorgon+korean+princess&dq=dorgon+korean+princess&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KaNsVbuZC8KEsAXjy4HoDQ&ved=0CCUQ6AEwAQ |archiveurl=https://archive.is/20161022134944/https://books.google.com/books?id=IN42AAAAIAAJ&q=dorgon+korean+princess&dq=dorgon+korean+princess&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KaNsVbuZC8KEsAXjy4HoDQ&ved=0CCUQ6AEwAQ |deadurl=no |archivedate=22 October 2016 |accessdate=22 October 2016 |year=1968 |publisher=梨大史學會 |page=105 |df= }}</ref> She was a collateral branches of the Korean royal family, and daughter of Yi Gae-yun (李愷胤).<ref>http://www.gachonherald.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=32</ref> Dorgon married two Korean princesses at Lianshan.<ref name="Ling1995">{{cite book|author=Li Ling |title=Son of Heaven |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ajcaAQAAIAAJ&q=dorgon+korean+princess&dq=dorgon+korean+princess&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KaNsVbuZC8KEsAXjy4HoDQ&ved=0CEQQ6AEwBw |archiveurl=https://archive.is/20161022135113/https://books.google.com/books?id=ajcaAQAAIAAJ&q=dorgon+korean+princess&dq=dorgon+korean+princess&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KaNsVbuZC8KEsAXjy4HoDQ&ved=0CEQQ6AEwBw |deadurl=no |archivedate=22 October 2016 |accessdate=22 October 2016 |year=1995 |publisher=Chinese Literature Press |isbn=978-7-5071-0288-8 |page=217 |df= }}</ref>


===Nguyen Lords in Vietnam===
==Nguyen Lords in Vietnam==


The Cambodian King [[Chey Chettha II]] married the Vietnamese [[Nguyễn lords|Nguyễn lord]] Princess Nguyễn Thị Ngọc Vạn, a daughter of Lord [[Nguyễn Phúc Nguyên]], in 1618.<ref>Mai Thục, ''Vương miện lưu đày: truyện lịch sử,'' Nhà xuất bản Văn hóa - thông tin, 2004, p.580; Giáo sư Hoàng Xuân Việt, Nguyễn Minh Tiến hiệu đính, ''Tìm hiểu lịch sử chữ quốc ngữ,'' Ho Chi Minh City, Công ty Văn hóa Hương Trang, pp.31-33; Helen Jarvis, ''Cambodia,'' Clio Press, 1997, p.xxiii.</ref><ref name="nghiamvo-1623">{{cite book|url=http://www.sacei07.org/women10.jsp|title=The Women of Vietnam|series=Saigon Arts, Culture & Education Institute Forum|author1=Nghia M. Vo |author2=Chat V. Dang |author3=Hien V. Ho |publisher=Outskirts Press|date=29 August 2008 |isbn=1-4327-2208-5}}</ref> In return, the king granted the Vietnamese the right to establish settlements in Mô Xoài (now [[Bà Rịa]]), in the region of Prey Nokor—which they colloquially [[Names of Ho Chi Minh City|referred to]] as ''Sài Gòn'', and which later became [[Ho Chi Minh City]].<ref name="kamm">{{cite book|title=Cambodia: report from a stricken land|author=Henry Kamm|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wtBkD5CoIMkC&lpg=PA23&ots=Uv-qTIXI2z&dq=chey%20chettha%20II&pg=PA23#v=onepage&q=chey%20chettha%20II&f=false|year=1998|publisher=Arcade Publishing|isbn=1-55970-433-0|page=23}}</ref><ref name="ngbac">{{cite web|url=http://nguyenphuoctoc.net/doc/nguyen_bac_english.html|title=Nguyễn Bặc and the Nguyễn|accessdate=16 June 2010|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090413074249/http://nguyenphuoctoc.net/doc/nguyen_bac_english.html|archivedate=13 April 2009|df=}}</ref>
The Cambodian King [[Chey Chettha II]] married the Vietnamese [[Nguyễn lords|Nguyễn lord]] Princess Nguyễn Thị Ngọc Vạn, a daughter of Lord [[Nguyễn Phúc Nguyên]], in 1618.<ref>Mai Thục, ''Vương miện lưu đày: truyện lịch sử,'' Nhà xuất bản Văn hóa - thông tin, 2004, p.580; Giáo sư Hoàng Xuân Việt, Nguyễn Minh Tiến hiệu đính, ''Tìm hiểu lịch sử chữ quốc ngữ,'' Ho Chi Minh City, Công ty Văn hóa Hương Trang, pp.31-33; Helen Jarvis, ''Cambodia,'' Clio Press, 1997, p.xxiii.</ref><ref name="nghiamvo-1623">{{cite book|url=http://www.sacei07.org/women10.jsp|title=The Women of Vietnam|series=Saigon Arts, Culture & Education Institute Forum|author1=Nghia M. Vo |author2=Chat V. Dang |author3=Hien V. Ho |publisher=Outskirts Press|date=29 August 2008 |isbn=1-4327-2208-5}}</ref> In return, the king granted the Vietnamese the right to establish settlements in Mô Xoài (now [[Bà Rịa]]), in the region of Prey Nokor—which they colloquially [[Names of Ho Chi Minh City|referred to]] as ''Sài Gòn'', and which later became [[Ho Chi Minh City]].<ref name="kamm">{{cite book|title=Cambodia: report from a stricken land|author=Henry Kamm|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wtBkD5CoIMkC&lpg=PA23&ots=Uv-qTIXI2z&dq=chey%20chettha%20II&pg=PA23#v=onepage&q=chey%20chettha%20II&f=false|year=1998|publisher=Arcade Publishing|isbn=1-55970-433-0|page=23}}</ref><ref name="ngbac">{{cite web|url=http://nguyenphuoctoc.net/doc/nguyen_bac_english.html|title=Nguyễn Bặc and the Nguyễn|accessdate=16 June 2010|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090413074249/http://nguyenphuoctoc.net/doc/nguyen_bac_english.html|archivedate=13 April 2009|df=}}</ref>

Revision as of 10:10, 23 September 2018

Heqin
Traditional Chinese和親
Simplified Chinese和亲
Literal meaningpeace marriage

Heqin, also known as marriage alliance, refers to the historical practice of Chinese emperors marrying princesses—usually members of minor branches of the royal family—to rulers of neighboring states.[1] It was often adopted as an appeasement strategy with an enemy state that was too powerful to defeat on the battlefield. The policy was not always effective. It implied an equal diplomatic status between the Chinese emperor and the foreign ruler. As a result, it was controversial and had many critics.[1]

Lou Jing (Chinese: 娄敬, later granted the royal surname Liu), the architect of the policy, proposed granting the eldest daughter of Emperor Gaozu of Han to the Modu Chanyu of the Xiongnu. His proposal was adopted and implemented with a treaty in 198 BC, following the Battle of Baideng two years prior.[2][3] Wang Zhaojun, of the Han dynasty, and Princess Wencheng, of the Tang dynasty, are among the most famous heqin princesses. Heqin was never again practiced by any Han Chinese dynasty after the Tang.

The 20th-century scholar Wang Tonglin praised heqin for facilitating the "melting of races" in China.[4]

Han Dynasty

There were a total of fifteen instances of heqin marriage alliances where foreign rulers force Han Chinese kings to supply Chinese princesses and other Han Chinese women for marriage and filling foreign royal harems during the Han Dynasty.[5][3]

Sixteen Kingdoms Period

During the Sixteen Kingdoms period, there were a total of six recorded instances of heqin marriage. Heqin marriage alliances during the Sixteen Kingdoms period differed from those practiced during the Han dynasty in two main ways. First, they involved "real" princesses (ie daughters of emperors or rulers). Second, unlike during the Han Dynasty, when most heqin marriages were aimed at establishing peace with foreign nations, heqin marriages during the Sixteen Kingdoms period were made primarily to settle rivalries and maintain a balance of power between the various states in China at the time.[5]

  • Fu Jian (337–385), Emperor Xuanzhao of Former Qin, married off one of his daughters to a non-Chinese royal named Yang Ding, ruler of the state of Chouchi.
  • Fu Deng, Emperor Gao of Former Qin, married off his younger sister, Princess Dongping (东平公主) to Qifu Gangui, Prince of Western Qi.
  • 441: Feng Ba, Emperor Wencheng of Northern Yan, married off his daughter, Princess Lelang (乐浪公主), to non-Chinese man named Yujiulü Hulü, Khan Aidougai of Rouran.
  • 415: Yao Xing, Emperor Wenhuan of Later Qin, married off his daughter, Princess Xiping (西平公主), to non-Chinese Emperor Mingyuan of Northern Wei. Because she was unable to forge a golden statue with her own hands, she was never formally empress, but was nevertheless recognized and respected as Emperor Mingyuan's wife, Consort Yao.
  • Qifu Chipan, Prince Wenzhao of Western Qin, married off his daughter, Princess Xingping (兴平公主), to non-Chinese Juqu Mengxun, Prince of Northern Liang's son Juqu Xingguo.
  • 433: Juqu Mengxun, Prince of Northern Liang, marries off his daughter, Princess Xingping (兴平公主), to non-Chinese Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei. She became foreign Emperor Taiwu's concubine.

Southern and Northern Dynasties

During the Southern and Northern Dynasties, China was also divided into many rival states. A complicated system of rivalries and vassalage existed. Heqin marriage was employed as a method to maintain a balance of power or to solidify alliances between states.[5]

During the Southern and Northern Dynasties, there were five instances of heqin marriage.

Sui Dynasty

With the establishment of the Sui dynasty in 581, China was once again unified under one dynasty. Heqin marriage of Han Chinese women to northern foreigners during the Sui Dynasty therefore returned to its original purpose of trying to appease barbarian tribes on China's borders.[5]

There were a total of seven instances of heqin marriage during the Sui Dynasty.

  • 597: Emperor Wen of Sui marries off Princess Anyi (安义公主), a Han Chinese Sui "princess", to non-Chinese Yami Qaghan, Khagan of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate. She was assassinated by Yung Yu- lu in 599
  • 599: Emperor Wen of Sui marries off another Han Chinese Sui princess, Princess Yicheng (义成公主), the daughter of a Sui imperial clansman, to Yami, Khagan of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate. After his death in 609, Princess Yicheng, in accordance with the Göktürk custom of levirate marriage, remarried to Yami Qaghan's successor and son (by another wife), Shibi Qaghan. After Shibi Qaghan's death in 619, Princess Yicheng again remarried to Shibi Qaghan's successor and younger brother, Chuluo. After the khagan's death in 621, Princess Yicheng remarried for the fourth and final time to his successor and younger brother, Illig Qaghan, who revolted against Tang China and was captured and killed in 630
  • Emperor Yang of Sui marries off Princess Xinyi (信义公主), a Sui "princess", to Heshana Khan, non-Chinese Khagan of the Western Turkish Khaganate.
  • Emperor Yang of Sui marries off his youngest daughter, Princess Huainan (淮南公主), to the new heir, Shibi's eldest son, Tuli.
  • 596: Emperor Wen of Sui marries off Han Chinese Princess Guanghua (光化公主), a Sui "princess", to marry the royal Mongolian Murong Shifu, khagan of Tuyuhun. After Murong Shifu's assassination in 597, Princess Guanghua remarried Murong Shifu's successor and younger brother, Murong Fuyun.
  • Emperor Yang of Sui marries off a Sui "princess" to non-Chinese Qu Boya, ruler of the oasis city of Gaochang in the Taklamakan Desert.

Tang Dynasty

During the Tang Dynasty, heqin marriage alliances were aimed primarily at five major states that bordered Tang China: Tuyuhun, the Tibetan Empire, the Khitans and the allied Kumo Xi, the Uyghur Khaganate, and Nanzhao.[5]

There were a total of twenty-one instances of heqin marriage alliances during the Tang Dynasty:

  • 640: Emperor Taizong of Tang marries off Han Chinese Princess Honghua (弘化公主) to non-Chinese Murong Nuohebo, Khan of Tuyuhun.
  • 641: Emperor Taizong of Tang marries off Han Chinese Princess Wencheng to non-Chinese Emperor Songtsän Gampo of the Tibetan Empire.
  • 642: Emperor Taizong proposed the marriage of his fifteenth daughter, Princess Xinxing (新兴公主), to Zhenzhu Khan, Khan of Xueyantuo. The heqin was called off.
  • 664: Emperor Gaozong of Tang marries off Han Chinese Lady Jincheng (金城县主), the third daughter of Li Dao'en, Prince of Guiji (会稽郡王李道恩), to non-Chinese Prince Sudumomo of Tuyuhun (吐谷浑王子苏度摸末).
  • 664: Emperor Gaozong marries off Han Chinese Lady Jinming (金明县主), the daughter of a Tang imperial clansman, to a non-Chinese Prince Talumomo of Tuyuhun (吐谷浑王子闼卢摸末).
  • 698: A daughter of Qapaghan, Khagan of the Second Eastern Turkic Khaganate marries Empress Wu Zetian's great-nephew Wu Chengsi, Prince of Huaiyang (淮阳王武延秀).
  • 703: A daughter of Qapaghan Khagan marries Crown Prince Li Dan's eldest son Li Chengqi, Prince of Song.
  • 709: Empress Wu Zetian marries off her great-granddaughter Princess Jincheng (金城公主), the daughter of her grandson Li Shouli, Prince of Bin, to Emperor Me Agtsom of Tibet
  • 712: Emperor Ruizong of Tang marries off his Han Chinese granddaughter, Princess Jinshan (金山公主), the daughter of his son Li Chengqi, to non-Chinese Turkic Qapaghan Khagan
  • 717: Emperor Xuanzong of Tang marries off Han Chinese Princess Yongle (永乐公主), the daughter of Yang Yuansi (杨元嗣) and a daughter of Li Xu, Prince of Dongping (东平王李续, son of Li Shen, Prince of Ji , the seventeenth son of Emperor Taizong), to non-Chinese groom Li Shihuo (李失活), leader of the Khitans (a proto Mongol-Manchu-Korean people).
  • 717: Princess Jianghe (交河公主), the daughter of Ashina Nahuaidao, 10th Khagan of the Western Turkic Khaganate, marries Sulu Khan, Khagan of Turgesh.
  • 722: Emperor Xuanzong of Tang marries off Han Chinese Princess Yanjun (燕郡公主) (surname Murong (慕容)), a Tang "princess", to non-Chinese Khitan prince Li Yuyu (李郁于).
  • 726: Emperor Xuanzong marries off his Han Chinese niece, Princess Donghua (东华公主, surname Chen 陈), to non-Chinese Khitan prince Li Shaogu (李邵固).
  • 726: Emperor Xuanzong marries Princess Dongguang (东光公主), the daughter of Emperor Xuanzong's first cousin Li Jijiang, Princess Cheng'an (成安公主李季姜) (eighth daughter of Emperor Zhongzong of Tang) and Wei Jie (韦捷), to Li Lusu (李鲁苏), ruler of Kumo Xi.
  • 744: Emperor Xuanzong marries off Han Chinese Princess Heyi (和义公主), a daughter of Li Can, Magistrate of Gaocheng (告城县令李参), to a Mongolian-Turkic royal named Axilan Dagan (阿悉烂达干), King of Ningyuan (宁远国王) in the Fergana Valley.
  • 745: Emperor Xuanzong marries off his granddaughter, Princess Jingle (静乐公主, daughter of his fifteenth daughter Princess Xincheng 信成公主 and Dugu Ming 独孤明), to non-Chinese Khitan prince Li Huaixiu (李怀秀).
  • 745: Emperor Xuanzong marries off Han Chinese Princess Yifang (宜芳公主), daughter of Princess Changning (长宁公主, daughter of Emperor Zhongzong of Tang) and Yang Shenjiao (杨慎交), to non-Chinese Khitan prince Li Yanchong (李延宠)
  • 756: Princess Pijia (毗伽公主), daughter of Bayanchur, Khagan of the Uyghur Khaganate, marries Li Chengcai (李承采), Prince of Dunhuang (敦煌王李承采), son of Li Shouli, Prince of Bin.

There were a total of seventeen instances of heqin marriage alliances during the Tang Dynasty.

640—690: five instances, to Tuyuhun, and one instance to the Tibetan Empire
710—745: four instances to Khitans, three instances to the Kumo Xi and one instance to the Tibetan Empire
758—821: seven instances to Uyghur Khaganate, including two daughters of the Chinese Emperor, i.e. real princesses, and three of Tiele descent.
883: one occurrence to Nanzhao (second daughter of Emperor Yizong of Tang).

Ming dynasty

The Oirat leader Esen Taishi captured the Chinese Ming dynasty Zhengtong Emperor. Esen Taishi tried to force the Zhengtong Emperor to marry Esen's sister in a heqin marriage[6] and then placing him back in Beijing with his new wife.[7][8][9] The emperor rejected the marriage proposal.[10]

A Mongol account in the Altan Tobchi said that Zhengtong Emperor had a son with a Mongol woman he married while he was prisoner.[11]

A Han Chinese named Rinong was allowed to marry a Mongol woman by the Gün-bilig-mergen Mongol Ordos leader Rinong (Jinong). This Han Chinese was Datong Army officer Wang Duo's (Wang To) 王鐸 son Wang San 王三 because Rinong wanted to hold on to Wang San and make him stay with the Mongols. The Ming arrested and executed Wang San in 1544 because Mongol soldiers were being guided by Wang San. Builders, carpenters, officers, and important prisoners such as the Ming Zhengtong Emperor often received Mongol wives.[12]

Qing dynasty

The preferred marriage partners for imperial daughters in Qing dynasty was Mongols rather than Chinese. More than 58 percent of imperial son-in-law were Mongols.The Manchus considered Mongols as their "brother state" since they shared similar values. In early period of Qing, a large amount of intermarriage between the two groups happened, and the Manchu rulers used this tie to gain the military support of Mongolia. The marriage also benefited the Qing Dynasty in expanding its empire to the best during the first decades. The marriage between Manchu princesses and Mongol princes continued to the end of Qing Dynasty, although becoming less prominent after the 18th century due to the decline of Mongolia's political and military influence.[13]

Han Chinese Generals who defected to the Manchu in early Qing were sometimes married to imperial daughters, although this is much less frequent than the case where Aisin Giroro women married to Mongolian aristocrats or other Manchu elite. Unlike the marriage between Manchu and Mongolians that lasted throughout the Qing Dynasty, the relatively rare marriage between Manchu princesses and Han Generals ceased before 1750. Manchu Aisin Gioro princesses might also married to Han Chinese official's sons. The 4th daughter of Kangxi (和硕悫靖公主) was wedded to the son (孫承恩) of the Sun Sike (Sun Ssu-k'o) 孫思克. There were some other Aisin Gioro women who married the sons of the Han Chinese Generals Geng Jimao (Keng Chi-mao), Shang Kexi (Shang K'o-hsi), and Wu Sangui (Wu San-kuei). However after the rebellion of some of these generals the Qing court became even less likely to use marriage to strengthen its ruling.

Xiongnu

The Xiongnu practiced marriage alliances with Han dynasty officers and officials who defected to their side. The older sister of the Chanyu (the Xiongnu ruler) was married to the Xiongnu General Zhao Xin, the Marquis of Xi who was serving the Han dynasty. The daughter of the Chanyu was married to the Han Chinese General Li Ling after he surrendered and defected.[14][15][16][17] The Yenisei Kirghiz Khagans claimed descent from Li Ling.[18][19] Another Han Chinese General who defected to the Xiongnu was Li Guangli who also married a daughter of the Chanyu.[20]

Northern Wei

The Xianbei Tuoba royal family of Northern Wei started to arrange for Han Chinese elites to marry daughters of the royal family in the 480s.[21] Some Han Chinese exiled royalty fled from southern China and defected to the Xianbei. Several daughters of the Xianbei Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei were married to Han Chinese elites, the Han Chinese Liu Song royal Liu Hui 刘辉, married Princess Lanling 蘭陵公主 of the Northern Wei,[22][23] Princess Huayang 華陽公主 to Sima Fei 司馬朏, a descendant of Jin dynasty (265–420) royalty, Princess Jinan 濟南公主 to Lu Daoqian 盧道虔, Princess Nanyang 南阳长公主 to Xiao Baoyin 萧宝夤, a member of Southern Qi royalty.[24] Emperor Xiaozhuang of Northern Wei's sister the Shouyang Princess was wedded to The Liang dynasty ruler Emperor Wu of Liang's son Xiao Zong 蕭綜.[25]

When the Eastern Jin dynasty ended Northern Wei received the Jin prince Sima Chuzhi 司馬楚之 as a refugee. A Northern Wei Princess married Sima Chuzhi, giving birth to Sima Jinlong 司馬金龍. Northern Liang Xiongnu King Juqu Mujian's daughter married Sima Jinlong.[26]

Jin Dynasty

The founder of the Jin Dynasty in North central China was named Hanpu who came from a man of Silla (Korean) descent who came and married the local Han Chinese women including maintaining concubines. Among his wives one was posthumously called Empress Mingyi 明懿皇后 in 1136. [27]

Rouran

The Rouran Khaganate arranged for one of their princesses, Khagan Yujiulü Anagui's daughter Princess Ruru 蠕蠕公主 to be married to the Han Chinese ruler Gao Huan of the Eastern Wei.[28][29]

Turkic Khaganate

The Kingdom of Gaochang was made out of Han Chinese colonists and ruled by the Han Chinese[30][31] Qu family which originated from Gansu.[32] Jincheng commandery 金城 (Lanzhou), district of Yuzhong 榆中 was the home of the Qu Jia.[33] The Qu family was linked by marriage allianes to the Turks, with a Turk being the grandmother of King Qu Boya's.[34][35]

Uighur Ganzhou Kingdom

The Chinese Cao family ruling Guiyi Circuit established marriage alliances with the Uighurs of the Ganzhou Kingdom, with both the Cao rulers marrying Uighur princesses and with Cao princesses marrying Uighur rulers. The Ganzhou Uighur Khagan's daughter was married to Cao Yijin in 916.[36][37][38]

Kingdom of Khotan

A daughter of the King of Khotan married to the ruler of Dunhuang, Cao Yanlu, is here shown wearing elaborate headdress decorated with jade pieces. Mural in Mogao Cave 61, Five Dynasties.

The Chinese Cao family ruling Guiyi Circuit established marriage alliances with the Saka Kingdom of Khotan, with both the Cao rulers marrying Khotanese princesses and with Cao princesses marrying Khotanese rulers. A Khotanese princess who was the daughter of the King of Khotan married Cao Yanlu.[39]

Liao dynasty

The Khitan Liao dynasty arranged for women from the Khitan royal consort Xiao clan to marry members of the Han Chinese Han 韓 clan, which originated in Jizhou 冀州 before being abducted by the Khitan and becoming part of the Han Chinese elite of the Liao.[40][41][42]

Han Chinese Geng family intermarried with the Khitan and the Han 韓 clan provided two of their women as wives to Geng Yanyi and the second one was the mother of Geng Zhixin.[43] Empress Rende's sister, a member of the Xiao clan, was the mother of Han Chinese General Geng Yanyi.[44]

Han Durang (Yelu Longyun) was the father of Queen dowager of State Chen, who was the wife of General Geng Yanyi and buried with him in his tomb in Zhaoyang in Liaoning.[45] His wife was also known as "Madame Han".[46] The Geng's tomb is located in Liaoning at Guyingzi in Chaoying.[47][48]

Lý dynasty Vietnam

The Lý dynasty which ruled Dai Viet (Vietnam) married its princesses off to regional rivals to establish alliances with them. One of these marriages was between a Lý princess (Lý Chiêu Hoàng) and a member of the Chinese Trần (Chen) clan (Trần Thái Tông), which enabled the Trần to then topple the Lý and established their own Trần dynasty.[49][50]

A Lý princess also married into the Hồ family, which was also of Chinese origin and later established the Hồ dynasty which also took power after having a Tran princess marry one of their members, Hồ Quý Ly.[51][52]

Joseon Korea

After the Second Manchu invasion of Korea, Joseon Korea provided several of their royal princesses as concubines to the Qing Manchu regent Prince Dorgon who traced his lineage to Koryo Korea originally near the Paektu (Changbai) Mountains.[53][54][55][56][57][58][59] In 1650, Dorgon married the Korean Princess Uisun (義順).[60] She was a collateral branches of the Korean royal family, and daughter of Yi Gae-yun (李愷胤).[61] Dorgon married two Korean princesses at Lianshan.[62]

Nguyen Lords in Vietnam

The Cambodian King Chey Chettha II married the Vietnamese Nguyễn lord Princess Nguyễn Thị Ngọc Vạn, a daughter of Lord Nguyễn Phúc Nguyên, in 1618.[63][64] In return, the king granted the Vietnamese the right to establish settlements in Mô Xoài (now Bà Rịa), in the region of Prey Nokor—which they colloquially referred to as Sài Gòn, and which later became Ho Chi Minh City.[65][66]

See also

References

Citations

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  4. ^ Bulag (2002), p. 83.
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  12. ^ Henry Serruys (1959). Chinese in Southern Mongolia During the Sixteenth Century. C.I.C.M. p. 75.
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Bibliography

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