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Re-write in more encyclopedic tone, moved some specific al-Aqsa material to its section, and added citation templates
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{{TotallyDisputed}}
{{TotallyDisputed}}
⚫
[[Mecca]] and [[Medina]] are recognized as the two most important sites in [[Islam]]. There is more contention about the identity of the '''Third holiest site in Islam'''. Based on scriptural references, the [[Al-Aqsa Mosque]] is widely recognized, especially by Sunni Muslims, as the third holiest site in Islam.<ref name=Webster>{{cite book |editor=Wendy Doninger, consulting ed. |title=Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions
This article is about [[political]] disputes over which is the '''Third holiest site in Islam'''. Contention regarding the the third holiest site in Islam heightened after the outbreak of the [[Palestinian]] [[Intifada]] in 2000. Conservative Christian commentator [[Joseph Farah]] wrote an article [[Myths of the Middle East]], appearing in the [[WorldNetDaily]] on 11 October 2000, which claimed that Jerusalem is not the third most holy site in Islam, because, according to him:
|date=1999-09-01 |publisher=[[Merriam-Webster]] |id=ISBN 0-877-79044-2 |pages=70}}, reviewed on Google books</ref> However, there are many who believe that Al-Aqsa is not the third holiest site, and its selection is based more on politics than religious theory.<ref name = "Farah">{{cite web
:"What about Islam's holy sites? There are none in Jerusalem." [http://www.worldnetdaily.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=15066]
| url = http://www.worldnetdaily.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=15066

| title = Myths of the Middle East
⚫
[[Mecca]] and [[Medina]] are recognized as the two most important sites in [[Islam]]. Based on scriptural references, the [[Al-Aqsa Mosque]] is widely recognized as the third holiest site in Islam. Al-Aqsa mosque was the first of the two [[qibla|qiblas]] (direction in which Muslims pray), was the site the Prophet [[Muhammad]] ascended to heaven, is one of only three mosques allowed for muslims to deliberately journey to, and prayer inside the mosque is 500 times greater than other sites (not including Mecca and Medina).
| accessdate = 2006-11-12
| last = Farah
| first = Joseph
| authorlink = Joseph Farah
| date = [[October 11]], [[2000]]
| work = Between the Lines
| publisher = [[WorldNetDaily]]
| quote = What about Islam's holy sites? There are none in Jerusalem.…I know what you're going to say: ‘Farah, the Al Aqsa Mosque and the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem represent Islam's third most holy sites.’ Not true. In fact, the Koran says nothing about Jerusalem. It mentions Mecca hundreds of times. It mentions Medina countless times. It never mentions Jerusalem. With good reason. There is no historical evidence to suggest Mohammed ever visited Jerusalem.
}}
</ref>


Mosques other than [[Al-Aqsa Mosque]] have been referred to as the "third holiest site in Islam" based on other considerations. None of these sites are mentioned in the [[Qur'an]] or Prophetic [[Hadith]].
Mosques other than [[Al-Aqsa Mosque]] have been referred to as the "third holiest site in Islam" based on other considerations. None of these sites are mentioned in the [[Qur'an]] or Prophetic [[Hadith]].
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==Al-Aqsa Mosque==
==Al-Aqsa Mosque==
[[Image:Al aqsa moschee 2.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Al-Aqsa Congregational Mosque in the southern part of al-Masjid al-Aqsa]]
[[Image:Al aqsa moschee 2.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Al-Aqsa Congregational Mosque in the southern part of al-Masjid al-Aqsa]]
⚫
Most Muslims believe that the "third holiest" site in Islam is the [[Al-Aqsa Mosque]] in [[Jerusalem]].<!--Note: It seems fair to say that "the vast majority" of Muslims believe that Al Aqsa is the third holiest, but we need a citation--> The Al-Aqsa mosque was the first of the two [[qibla|qiblas]] (direction in which Muslims pray), was the site from which the Prophet [[Muhammad]] ascended to heaven, is one of only three mosques allowed for muslims to deliberately journey to, and prayer inside the mosque is 500 times greater than other sites, outside of Mecca and Medina)
⚫
Most Muslims believe that the "third holiest" site in Islam is the [[Al-Aqsa Mosque]] in [[Jerusalem]].<ref name=Webster>{{cite book |editor=Wendy Doninger, consulting ed. |title=Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions

|date=1999-09-01 |publisher=[[Merriam-Webster]] |id=ISBN 0-877-79044-2 |pages=70}}, reviewed on Google books</ref><!--Note: It seems fair to say that "the vast majority" of Muslims believe that Al Aqsa is the third holiest, but we need a citation--> Although most political references to the Al Aqsa Mosque date from the [[12th century]] or later, the Mosque's position in Islam is firmly grounded in a number of [[hadith]] dating from the birth of Islam.<ref name=>{{cite book |last=Hashimi |first=Sohail H |coauthors=various coauthors |editor=Allen E. Buchannan, Margaret Moore, eds |title=States, Nations and Borders: the ethics of making boundaries |date=2003-05-07 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |id=ISBN 0-521-52575-6 |pages=192-193 |chapter=Political Boundaries and Moral Communities: Islamic Perspectives}}, reviewed on Google books</ref>
Although most political references to the Al Aqsa Mosque date from the [[12th century]] or later, the Mosque's position in Islam is firmly grounded in a number of [[hadith]] dating from the birth of Islam.<ref name=>{{cite book |last=Hashimi |first=Sohail H |coauthors=various coauthors |editor=Allen E. Buchannan, Margaret Moore, eds |title=States, Nations and Borders: the ethics of making boundaries |date=2003-05-07 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |id=ISBN 0-521-52575-6 |pages=192-193 |chapter=Political Boundaries and Moral Communities: Islamic Perspectives}}, reviewed on Google books</ref>


In terms of the "virtue" of a religious site, and the value of prayers performed within it, Muslims believe that the [[Al-Aqsa Mosque]] in [[Jerusalem]] is the third holiest site based on scripture.{{fact}} The [[Sahih Bukhari]] quotes [[Abu al-Dardaa]] as saying: "the Prophet of Allah [[Muhammad]] said a prayer in the [[Masjid al-Haram|Sacred Mosque]] (in [[Mecca]]) is worth 100,000 prayers; a prayer in [[Al-Masjid al-Nabawi|my mosque]] (in [[Medina]]) is worth 1,000 prayers; and a prayer in al-Masjid al-Aqsa (in [[Jerusalem]]) is worth 500 prayers more than in any other mosque.
In terms of the "virtue" of a religious site, and the value of prayers performed within it, Muslims believe that the [[Al-Aqsa Mosque]] in [[Jerusalem]] is the third holiest site based on scripture.{{fact}} The [[Sahih Bukhari]] quotes [[Abu al-Dardaa]] as saying: "the Prophet of Allah [[Muhammad]] said a prayer in the [[Masjid al-Haram|Sacred Mosque]] (in [[Mecca]]) is worth 100,000 prayers; a prayer in [[Al-Masjid al-Nabawi|my mosque]] (in [[Medina]]) is worth 1,000 prayers; and a prayer in al-Masjid al-Aqsa (in [[Jerusalem]]) is worth 500 prayers more than in any other mosque.

Revision as of 03:41, 14 November 2006

Template:TotallyDisputed Mecca and Medina are recognized as the two most important sites in Islam. There is more contention about the identity of the Third holiest site in Islam. Based on scriptural references, the Al-Aqsa Mosque is widely recognized, especially by Sunni Muslims, as the third holiest site in Islam.[1] However, there are many who believe that Al-Aqsa is not the third holiest site, and its selection is based more on politics than religious theory.[2]

Mosques other than Al-Aqsa Mosque have been referred to as the "third holiest site in Islam" based on other considerations. None of these sites are mentioned in the Qur'an or Prophetic Hadith.

Al-Aqsa Mosque

Al-Aqsa Congregational Mosque in the southern part of al-Masjid al-Aqsa

Most Muslims believe that the "third holiest" site in Islam is the Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem. The Al-Aqsa mosque was the first of the two qiblas (direction in which Muslims pray), was the site from which the Prophet Muhammad ascended to heaven, is one of only three mosques allowed for muslims to deliberately journey to, and prayer inside the mosque is 500 times greater than other sites, outside of Mecca and Medina)

Although most political references to the Al Aqsa Mosque date from the 12th century or later, the Mosque's position in Islam is firmly grounded in a number of hadith dating from the birth of Islam.[3]

In terms of the "virtue" of a religious site, and the value of prayers performed within it, Muslims believe that the Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem is the third holiest site based on scripture.[citation needed] The Sahih Bukhari quotes Abu al-Dardaa as saying: "the Prophet of Allah Muhammad said a prayer in the Sacred Mosque (in Mecca) is worth 100,000 prayers; a prayer in my mosque (in Medina) is worth 1,000 prayers; and a prayer in al-Masjid al-Aqsa (in Jerusalem) is worth 500 prayers more than in any other mosque.

The Al-Aqsa Mosque is considered the third most important Islamic site based a scriptural reference stating that, along with Mecca and Medina, it was visited by Muhammad during his lifetime: Abu Huraira [ra] is quoted as saying that Allah’s Messenger [peace be upon him] said.

  • "... Not to travel (for visiting) except for three mosques: Masjid-al-Haram (in Mecca), my Mosque (in Medina), and Masjid-al-Aqsa (in Jerusalem)" [4]
  • Abu Dharr [ra] is quoted as saying, I asked the beloved Prophet Muhammad [peace be upon him] which was the first mosque on earth? ‘The Sacred Mosque’ (in Mecca), he said. And then which, I asked? Masjid al Aqsa, he said. I further asked, what was the time span between the two? ‘Forty years,’ the Prophet [peace be upon him] replied. Sahih Muslim

The Quran also refers to Al-Aqsa mosque multiple times.

So her Lord accepted her (Mary) with a good acceptance and made her grow up a good growing, and gave her into the charge of Zakariya; whenever Zakariya entered the sanctuary (Al-Aqsa Mosque) to (see) her, he found with her food. He said: O Maryam! whence comes this to you? She said: It is from Allah. Surely Allah gives to whom He pleases without measure.

— Qur'an, [Quran 3:37]

Then the angels called to him as he stood praying in the sanctuary (Al-Aqsa Mosque): That Allah gives you the good news of Yahya verifying a Word from Allah, and honorable and chaste and a prophet from among the good ones.

— Qur'an, [Quran 3:39]

Glory be to Him Who made His servant (Muhammad) to go on a night from the Sacred Mosque to the remote mosque of which We have blessed the precincts, so that We may show to him some of Our signs; surely He is the Hearing, the Seeing.

— Qur'an, [Quran 17:1]

If you (Israelites) do good, you will do good for your own souls, and if you do evil, it shall be for them. So when the second promise came (We raised another people) that they may bring you to grief and that they may enter the mosque (Al-Aqsa Mosque) as they entered it the first time, and that they might destroy whatever they gained ascendancy over with utter destruction.

— Qur'an, [Quran 17:7]

So he (Zakariya) went forth to his people (Israelites) from his place of worship (Al-Aqsa Mosque), then he made known to them that they should glorify (Allah) morning and evening.

— Qur'an, [Quran 19:11]

Imam Ali Mosque, Iraq

Exterior view of Imam Ali Shrine

Many sources refer to the Imam Ali Mosque, in Najaf, Iraq, as the third holiest site for the Shiite branch of Islam.[5][6][7] With an estimated 130 to 200 million followers worldwide, this accounts for approximately 15% of all Muslims.[8] It is estimated that only Mecca and Medina receive more Muslim pilgrims.[citation needed]

It has also been reported in the name of Imam Sardeg (Imam-Jaafar Al-Sadeq, the Sixth Twelver of Shia) that the Imam Ali mosque is the third of five holy places: Mecca, Medina, the Imam Ali shrine in Najaf, the Imam Hussein shrine in Karbala, and the shrine for Fatemah in Qom.[9]

There are even those who claim that the Imam Ali shrine is the second holiest site after Mecca[10]

Imam Husayn Shrine, Iraq

Imam Husayn Shrine

According to the Public Broadcasting Service, the Imam Husayn Shrine in Karbala is the holiest site outside of Meca and Medina.[11] This view was also agreed to by the British public broadcast network, Channel 4.[12]

Al Askari Mosque, Iraq

File:Beforesmarraafter.jpg
Al Askari Mosque before and after its bombing

At the time of the Al Askari Mosque bombing in Samarra, it was reported that the mosque was one of Shiite Islam's holiest sites, only exceeded by the shrines of Najaf and Karbala.[13]

In an interview published by Abroad Media, Lt. Gen. David Petraeus referred to it as the third holiest shrine in shia Islam. [14]

Al Kadhimiya Mosque, Iraq

After the bombing of the Al Kadhimiya Mosque, Middle East correspondent of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, Nahlah Ayed, reported that “Well, it had been a very quiet crowd just walking around, milling around, and then the first of the bombs went off. People didn't really know what was going on until the second bomb went off and it blew up in a fiery ball right in front of the Kadhimiya Mosque, the third holiest site for Shia Muslims.”[15]

Other reports after the bombing also referred to the shrine as the third-holiest in Shiite Islam.[16]

Hala Sultan Tekke, Cyprus

According to the United Nations Development Programme, Islam’s third sacred holy site, after the Kaaba in Mecca and the Mosque of the Prophet in Medina, is Hala Sultan Tekke, or Umm Haram in Cyprus.[17] In an assessment of the environmental and cultural assets of Cyprus, Professor George E. Bowen, a senior Fullbright scholar at the University of Tennessee, is quoted as referring to the Hala Sultan Tekke as the third holiest place for Muslims in the world.[18] There are a number of other sources referring to the Hala Sultan Tekke as Islam's third-holiest site.[19][20]

Eyüp Mosque, Turkey

According to an article in the Turkish Daily News, Turkish Muslims consider the Eyüp Mosque as the third holiest pilgrimage site in Islam after Mecca and Jerusalem.[21] It is the reputed burial place of Ayoub al-Ansari who was a friend and the standard bearer for Mohammed. In addition to Ayoub's tomb there is a golden-framed footprint of Mohammed.

Rawze-e-Sharif, Afghanistan

Situated in Mazari Sharif, Afghanistan, Rawze-e-Sharif, also known as The Blue Mosque, is believed by Afghan Muslims to be the resting place of Ali, son-in-law of the Prophet Muhammad, and the third holiest site in Islam.[22]

Umayyad Mosque, Syria

Richard Moore reported that according to many Syrians, the Umayyad Mosque, which after Mecca and Medina, “is possibly the world's third most important mosque.”[23]


Fez, Morroco

Africa Guide states: Fez is the holiest city in the Islamic world after Mecca and Medina. Founded at the beginning of the 9th century by Moulay Idriss II, and barely unchanged, this enchanting city has been a seat of government, philosophy, medicine and most notably religion since then. [24]

Aljama Mosque, Spain

Worldsurface.com describes the Aljama Mosque in Córdoba as “once the third holiest pilgrimage site in the Islamic world”.][unreliable source?] [25]

Kairouan, Tunisia

An article titled “Towards A Strategic Geopolitic Vision of Afro-Arab Relations” [26]

by Professor Kwesi Prah [27] states “By 670, the Arabs had taken Tunisia, and by 675, they had completed construction of Kairouan, the city that would become the premier Arab base in North Africa. Kairouan was later to become the third holiest city in Islam in the medieval period, after Mecca and Medina”.

The University of Calgary's Applied History Research Group states: "By 670, the Arabs had taken Tunisia, and by 675, they had completed construction of Kairouan, the city that would become the Arab base in North Africa. Kairouan would also become the third holiest city in Islam in the medieval period, after Mecca and Medina, because of its importance as the centre of the Islamic faith in the Maghrib". -->


References

  1. ^ Wendy Doninger, consulting ed., ed. (1999-09-01). Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions. Merriam-Webster. p. 70. ISBN 0-877-79044-2. {{cite book}}: |editor= has generic name (help), reviewed on Google books
  2. ^ Farah, Joseph (October 11, 2000). "Myths of the Middle East". Between the Lines. WorldNetDaily. Retrieved 2006-11-12. What about Islam's holy sites? There are none in Jerusalem.…I know what you're going to say: 'Farah, the Al Aqsa Mosque and the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem represent Islam's third most holy sites.' Not true. In fact, the Koran says nothing about Jerusalem. It mentions Mecca hundreds of times. It mentions Medina countless times. It never mentions Jerusalem. With good reason. There is no historical evidence to suggest Mohammed ever visited Jerusalem. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  3. ^ Hashimi, Sohail H (2003-05-07). "Political Boundaries and Moral Communities: Islamic Perspectives". In Allen E. Buchannan, Margaret Moore, eds (ed.). States, Nations and Borders: the ethics of making boundaries. Cambridge University Press. pp. 192–193. ISBN 0-521-52575-6. {{cite book}}: |editor= has generic name (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link), reviewed on Google books
  4. ^ Third holiest site is Al-Aqsa
  5. ^ Almodarresi, Sayed Mahdi (February 9, 2003). "Never Again!". Modarresinews.com. Retrieved 2006-11-12. The place was the burial site of Islam's second most important figure and third holiest shrine. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  6. ^ "Muslim Shiite's Saint Imam Ali Holy Shrine". Photo Agency. Cultural Heritage Organization of Iran. 2005. Retrieved 2006-11-12. world's 120 million Shiites regard Najaf - a center of scientific, literary and theological studies - as their third-holiest site, behind Mecca and Medina.
  7. ^ al-Issawi, Tarek (August 31, 2003). "Iraqis arrest 19 with terror ties in mosque blast". The Washington Times. Retrieved 2006-11-12. American authorities have not taken an active public role in the mosque investigation because of Iraqi sensitivity to any U.S. presence at the Najaf shrine, the most-sacred Shi'ite shrine in Iraq and the third holiest in the world after Mecca and Medina in Saudi Arabia. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  8. ^ Penhaul, Karl (April 23, 2003). "Religious rivalries and political overtones in Iraq". CNN. Retrieved 2006-11-12. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  9. ^ Escobar, Pepe (May 24, 2002). "Knocking on heaven's door". Central Asia/Russia. Asia Times Online. Retrieved 2006-11-12. To give a measure of its importance, according to a famous hadith (saying) - enunciated with pleasure by the guardians of the shrine - we learn that 'our sixth imam, Imam Sardeg, says that we have five definitive holy places that we respect very much. The first is Mecca, which belongs to God. The second is Medina, which belongs to the Holy Prophet Muhammad, the messenger of God. The third belongs to our first imam of Shia, Ali, which is in Najaf. The fourth belongs to our third imam, Hussein, in Kerbala. The last one belongs to the daughter of our seventh imam and sister of our eighth imam, who is called Fatemah, and will be buried in Qom. Pilgrims and those who visit her holy shrine, I promise to these men and women that God will open all the doors of Heaven to them.' {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  10. ^ "Lebanese Firms To Start Tourism Projects In Iraq". IslamicTourism.com. September 3, 2006. Retrieved 2006-11-12. Najaf, home to the shrine of Imam Ali, the cousin of the Prophet Mohammed, is Muslim Shiites second holiest site after Mecca in Saudi Arabia. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help) Editor's note: This is actually taken from the www.azzaman.com news website, but is no longer directly linked on the English-language page.
  11. ^ "Karbala". Interactive Map: Sunni and Shia: The Worlds of Islam. Public Broadcasting Service. 2006. Retrieved 2006-11-12. Husayn, Ali's son, Muhammad's grandson, and the central martyr in the Shia tradition, died at Karbala and is buried there. For Shiites, his tomb is the holiest site outside of Mecca and Medina, and many make the pilgrimage there -- up to a million pilgrims visit the city to observe Ashura, the anniversary of Husayn's death.
  12. ^ "Karbala". Channel 4. Retrieved 2006-11-12. The holy city of Karbala, situated 100 km south of Baghdad, derives its name from the ancient Babylonian meaning "sacred place of God" from the two shrines it houses of the Prophet Muhammad's grandson Husayn and his brother 'Abbas. Shi'a Muslims consider this to be one of the holiest places in the world second only to Mecca and Najaf.
  13. ^ Gosh, Aparisim (March 6, 2006). "An Eye For an Eye". Time Magazine. pp. Cover Story. Retrieved 2006-11-12. That makes al-Askari one of Shi'ite Islam's holiest sites, exceeded in veneration only by the shrines of Najaf and Karbala. Even Samarra's Sunnis hold al-Askari in high esteem. The expression "to swear by the shrine" is routinely used by both communities. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help) Editor's note: Quote is found on third page of article.
  14. ^ Petraeus, Lt. Gen. David (Sept 17, 2006). "Transcript: Lt. Gen. David Petraeus - Interview". American Abroad Media. Retrieved 2006-11-13. …but now also sectarian militias that have very much become active particularly in the wake again of the Gold Dome Mosque bombing on Samara when the third holiest shrine in Shia Islam was devastated by an explosion… {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  15. ^ Robertson, Hamish (March 3, 2004). "Iraq suicide bombings: an eyewitness account". The World Today. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 2006-11-12. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  16. ^ "Iraq blasts kill 143 on Shiite holy day". Milwaukee Journal Sentinel. March 2, 2004. Retrieved 2006-11-12. 'After the blast, all you could see was death everywhere you looked,' said Ahmed Kamil Ibrahim, a guard at the Kazimiya shrine in Baghdad, the third-holiest in Shiite Islam. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  17. ^ "Hala Sultan Tekke: Where East Meets West". Issue 1. United Nations Development Programme. 2006. Retrieved 2006-11-12. In a peaceful setting near Larnaca's West Lake, surrounded by forest and set against a breathtaking landscape is Hala Sultan Tekke. Islam's third sacred holy site after the Ka'ba and the Prophet Mohammad's grave in Mecca, and among the greatest cultural heritage monuments of the world, Hala Sultan Tekke, or Umm Haram, has long been the destination of Muslim pilgrims from Cyprus and the Middle East. The site is also an integral part of Cyprus' own remarkable history and impressive multicultural heritage, where East meets West. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  18. ^ Bowen, George E. (April 3, 2001). "Assessing the Isle of Cyprus". Patrick S. O'Brien on the University of Tennessee server. Retrieved 2006-11-12. Three historic churches and monasteries are within the city. Just outside the city is the location of the Hala Sultan Tekke Mosque, the third holiest place for Muslims in the world. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  19. ^ Boyle, Kevin (1997). "Cyprus". Freedom of religion and belief: a world report. London: Routledge. pp. 286–293. LCCN 97-0 ISBN 0415159776. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  20. ^ Drayton, Penny (1993). "Aphrodite's island". Wood & water. 2 (41). {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help) as quoted by Trubshaw, Bob (1993). "The Black Stone - the Omphalos of the Goddess". Mercian Mysteries (14). Retrieved 2006-11-12. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  21. ^ Gamm, Niki (November 27, 2005). "Exploring a district devoted to the dead: Eyüp, Istanbul". Turkish Daily News. Retrieved 2006-11-12. Fatih Sultan Mehmed had a shrine built here and then a mosque. This proved to be a popular religious site so much so that Eyüp is now considered the third holiest shrine in Islam after Mecca and Jerusalem, and pilgrims throughout the centuries have come here. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  22. ^ Schofield, Emma (October 17, 2005). "The Blue Mosque at Masar-e-Sharif". Mirror. International Security Assistance Force. p. 8. Retrieved 2006-11-12. The Blue Mosque in Masar-e-Sharif is the third holiest site in Islam and the main dome was built 970 years ago to house the coffin of Khalif Ali, the son-in-law of Prophet Mohammed. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  23. ^ Moore, Richard (2005). "Syria: Crossroads of the Levant". Syrian Ministry of Tourism. Retrieved 2006-11-12. The highlight to the Old City was the Umayyad Mosque, which after Mecca and Medina, is possibly the world third most important mosque. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  24. ^ Day 8
  25. ^ Worldsurface.com is an online travel magazine written by an international community of writers & photographers; [1]
  26. ^ This was originally a paper submitted to the African Union (AU) Experts’ Meeting on a Strategic Geopolitic Vision of Afro-Arab Relations. AU Headquarters, Addis Ababa, 11-12 May, 2004 [2].
  27. ^ Director, Centre for Advanced Study of African Societies, Cape Town, South Africa
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