User:Platonist Rainbow/sandbox: Difference between revisions
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== Functional Completeness of Many-Valued Logics == |
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{{Infobox Coin |
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| Denomination = Half sovereign |
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| Country = United Kingdom |
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| Value = {{frac|1|2}} |
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| Unit = [[pound sterling]] |
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| Mass = 3.99 |
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| Diameter = 19.30 |
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| Thickness = |
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| Edge = Milled |
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| Composition = 22 Carat Gold |
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| Gold_troy_oz = .1176 |
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| Years of Minting = 1817–present |
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| Catalog Number = |
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| Obverse = File:1914 Sydney Half Sovereign - George V.jpg |
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| Obverse Design = Portrait of reigning monarch ([[George V]] obverse shown) |
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| Obverse Designer = |
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| Obverse Design Date = |
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| Reverse = File:1914 Sydney Half Sovereign - St. George.jpg |
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| Reverse Design = [[Saint George and the Dragon]] |
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| Reverse Designer = [[Benedetto Pistrucci]] |
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}} |
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The '''half sovereign''' is an [[Kingdom of England|English]] and later, British [[gold coin]] with a nominal value of half a [[pound sterling]], or ten [[shilling]]s. It is half the weight (and has half the gold content) of its counterpart 'full' [[Sovereign (British coin)|sovereign]] coin. |
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Since the end of the [[gold standard]], it has been issued only in limited quantities as a [[bullion coin|bullion]] or [[coin collecting|collectors' coin]], with a sale price and resale value far in excess of its nominal value, though continues to be [[legal tender]]. |
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[[Functional completeness]] is a term used to describe a special property of finite logics and algebras. A logic's set of connectives is said to be ''functionally complete'' or ''adequate'' if and only if its set of connectives can be used to construct a formula corresponding to every possible [[truth function]]<ref>{{cite book|last1=Smith|first1=Nicholas|title=Logic: The Laws of Truth|date=2012|publisher=Pinceton University Press|page=124|pages=124|accessdate=22/09/20}}</ref>. An adequate algebra is one in which every finite mapping of variables can be expressed by some composition of its operations<ref name=":0">{{cite book|last1=Malinowski|first1=Grzegorz|title=Many-Valued Logics|date=1993|publisher=Clarendon Press|page=26|pages=27|accessdate=22/09/20}}</ref>. |
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===Background and Authorisation=== |
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Classical logic: CL = ({0,1}, '''¬''', →, ∨, ∧, ↔) is functionally complete, whereas no [[Łukasiewicz logic]] or infinitely many-valued logics has this property<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Church|first=Alonzo|url=https://books.google.com.au/books?id=JDLQOMKbdScC&pg=PA162&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Introduction to Mathematical Logic|date=1996|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-02906-1|language=en}}</ref>. |
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The reign of [[Henry VII]] was a prosperous time for England’s economy, which he revitalised following civil war and the [[Black Death]]. Henry VII introduced the [[sovereign]] in 1489, which was valued at twenty [[shilling]]s. Prior to this, the only gold coins in circulation were [[angel]]s and [[half-angel]]s. |
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Henry VII left a large treasury, the modern equivalent of about £375 million to his successor [[Henry VIII]]. This inherited wealth was not to last. Henry VIII’s extravagant lifestyle, and war expenses needed to maintain claim of [[France]] are attributed to the decline of England’s wealth during his reign. Prior to the [[Reformation]], minting was still carried out by monasteries. Due to a shortage of bullion import from overseas - Cardinal Wolsey, Chancellor of Exchequer, began debasing coinage in an attempt to bring England’s currency in line with continental currencies in 1526. Henry VIII realised he was able to increase his revenue if he were to continue debasing coins – reducing their fineness, and that the introduction of new denominations would aid this process. This decision earned him the nickname “Old Coppernose”, describing the copper showing through parts of his face that were of low relief on his basest coinage after only a short time in circulation. The era 1542-1551 is now known as the [[Great Debasement]]. |
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We can define a finitely many-valued logic as being L''<sub>n</sub>'' ({1, 2, ..., ''n''} ƒ<sub>1</sub>, ..., ƒ''<sub>m</sub>'') where ''n'' ≥ 2 is a given natural number. Post (1921) proves that assuming a logic is able to produce a function of any ''m''<sup>th</sup> order model, there is some corresponding combination of connectives in an adequate logic L''<sub>n</sub>'' which can produce a model of order ''m+1'' <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Post|first=Emil L.|date=1921|title=Introduction to a General Theory of Elementary Propositions|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2370324|journal=American Journal of Mathematics|volume=43|issue=3|pages=163–185|doi=10.2307/2370324|issn=0002-9327}}</ref>. |
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The coinage of Henry VIII can be divided into five classes. The half sovereign valued at ten shillings alongside the quarter-angel, was introduced in the third of these classes. |
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<references /> |
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The half sovereign continued to be used by Henry VIII’s successor Edward VI. During the reign of Elizabeth and Charles I, ten shilling coins were issued in the denominations of half pounds and unites respectively. Sovereigns and half sovereigns were not to re-emerge until 1817. |
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George III ascended in 1760, and by 1801 was monarch of a United Great Britain and Ireland. Revolutionary war was breaking out, with 13 of the American colonies declaring themselves independent in retaliation to heavy taxation from Britain. The Anglo-French war devastated the British economy, to which the Bank of England responded by issuing banknotes in lieu of gold coinage for the first time. There was also a surge in Spanish eight reales stamped with the King’s image and businesses issuing their own copper tokens. |
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William Wellesly Pole was appointed Master of the Mint in 1812. Large amounts of gold had left Britain as a consequence of the Napoleonic wars, to which Pole responded by suggesting new gold coinage of ten shilling, twenty shilling, forty shilling and five pound pieces, which constituted the Great Recoinage approved in 1816. The modern sovereign and half sovereign featuring the famous design by Benedetto Pistrucci of St George slaying the dragon was proclaimed as currency in 1817, and minting commenced later that year. |
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Mintage of the denominations has continued since, with no alterations in weight and fineness. |
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===British coin=== |
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In 1817, following a major revision of [[British coinage]], new versions of half sovereigns and sovereigns were introduced. |
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Production continued until 1926 and, apart from special issues for coronation years, was not restarted until 1980.<ref>https://www.chards.co.uk/blog/half-sovereigns-information-page/277</ref> It was also used extensively in Australia, until 1933. |
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Modern half sovereigns, from 1817 onwards, have a diameter of 19.30 mm, a thickness of c. 0.99 mm, a weight of 3.99 g, are made of 22 [[carat (purity)|carat]] ({{frac|91|2|3}}%) [[crown gold]] alloy, and contain 0.1176 [[troy weight|troy ounces]] (3.6575 g) of gold. The reverse side, featuring [[Saint George and the Dragon|St. George slaying a dragon]] was designed by [[Benedetto Pistrucci]], whose initials appear to the right of the date.<ref>https://www.ngccoin.com/price-guide/world/great-britain-1-2-sovereign-km-819-1911-1915-cuid-1129956-duid-1327263</ref> |
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==Mintages== |
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{|class="wikitable" |
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|- |
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!Year |
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!Coins minted |
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|- |
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|1982 || 2,500,000 |
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|- |
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|1983–1999 || limited edition [[proof coinage|proofs]] only |
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|- |
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|2000 || 146,822 |
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|- |
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|2001 || 94,763 |
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|- |
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|2002 || 61,347 |
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|- |
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|2003 || 47,818 |
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|- |
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|2004 || 34,924 |
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|- |
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|2005 || 30,299 |
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|} |
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==Counterfeiting== |
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The half sovereign is a "protected coin" for the purposes of Part II of the [[Forgery and Counterfeiting Act 1981]].<ref>The [[Forgery and Counterfeiting Act 1981]], section 27(1), as read with the Forgery and Counterfeiting (Protected Coins) Order 1981 (S.I. 1981/505), [http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/1981/1505/article/2/made article 2] and [http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/1981/1505/schedule/made Schedule]</ref> |
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==See also== |
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*[[Quarter sovereign]] - introduced in 2009 |
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==References== |
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{{reflist}} |
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==External links== |
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{{Portal|Money|Numismatics|United Kingdom}} |
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{{Commons category|Half sovereign (British coin)}} |
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*[http://www.coinsgb.com British Coins] - Free information about British coins. Includes an online forum. |
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*[https://onlinecoin.club/Coins/CoinType/United_Kingdom/Half_Sovereign_pre_decimal/ Online Coin Club / Coins from United Kingdom / Half Sovereign (Pre-Decimal)] |
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{{s-start}} |
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{{succession box | title= Half Pound | before= Unknown | after=[[Bank of England 10s note|Ten shilling note]] | years=1544–1926}} |
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{{s-end}} |
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{{British coinage}} |
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{{Coins of England}} |
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[[Category:English gold coins]] |
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[[Category:British gold coins]] |
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[[Category:Coins of Australia]] |
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[[Category:1544 introductions]] |
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[[Category:1544 establishments in England]] |
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[[Category:Bullion coins]] |
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[[Category:Half-base-unit coins]] |
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{{coin-stub}} |
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Revision as of 08:56, 26 October 2020
 | This article needs additional citations for verification. (February 2010) |
United Kingdom | |
| Value | 1⁄2 pound sterling |
|---|---|
| Mass | 3.99 g |
| Diameter | 19.30 mm |
| Edge | Milled |
| Composition | 22 Carat Gold |
| Gold | .1176 troy oz |
| Years of minting | 1817–present |
| Obverse | |
 | |
| Design | Portrait of reigning monarch (George V obverse shown) |
| Reverse | |
 | |
| Design | Saint George and the Dragon |
| Designer | Benedetto Pistrucci |
The half sovereign is an English and later, British gold coin with a nominal value of half a pound sterling, or ten shillings. It is half the weight (and has half the gold content) of its counterpart 'full' sovereign coin.
Since the end of the gold standard, it has been issued only in limited quantities as a bullion or collectors' coin, with a sale price and resale value far in excess of its nominal value, though continues to be legal tender.
Background and Authorisation
The reign of Henry VII was a prosperous time for England’s economy, which he revitalised following civil war and the Black Death. Henry VII introduced the sovereign in 1489, which was valued at twenty shillings. Prior to this, the only gold coins in circulation were angels and half-angels.
Henry VII left a large treasury, the modern equivalent of about £375 million to his successor Henry VIII. This inherited wealth was not to last. Henry VIII’s extravagant lifestyle, and war expenses needed to maintain claim of France are attributed to the decline of England’s wealth during his reign. Prior to the Reformation, minting was still carried out by monasteries. Due to a shortage of bullion import from overseas - Cardinal Wolsey, Chancellor of Exchequer, began debasing coinage in an attempt to bring England’s currency in line with continental currencies in 1526. Henry VIII realised he was able to increase his revenue if he were to continue debasing coins – reducing their fineness, and that the introduction of new denominations would aid this process. This decision earned him the nickname “Old Coppernose”, describing the copper showing through parts of his face that were of low relief on his basest coinage after only a short time in circulation. The era 1542-1551 is now known as the Great Debasement.
The coinage of Henry VIII can be divided into five classes. The half sovereign valued at ten shillings alongside the quarter-angel, was introduced in the third of these classes.
The half sovereign continued to be used by Henry VIII’s successor Edward VI. During the reign of Elizabeth and Charles I, ten shilling coins were issued in the denominations of half pounds and unites respectively. Sovereigns and half sovereigns were not to re-emerge until 1817.
George III ascended in 1760, and by 1801 was monarch of a United Great Britain and Ireland. Revolutionary war was breaking out, with 13 of the American colonies declaring themselves independent in retaliation to heavy taxation from Britain. The Anglo-French war devastated the British economy, to which the Bank of England responded by issuing banknotes in lieu of gold coinage for the first time. There was also a surge in Spanish eight reales stamped with the King’s image and businesses issuing their own copper tokens.
William Wellesly Pole was appointed Master of the Mint in 1812. Large amounts of gold had left Britain as a consequence of the Napoleonic wars, to which Pole responded by suggesting new gold coinage of ten shilling, twenty shilling, forty shilling and five pound pieces, which constituted the Great Recoinage approved in 1816. The modern sovereign and half sovereign featuring the famous design by Benedetto Pistrucci of St George slaying the dragon was proclaimed as currency in 1817, and minting commenced later that year.
Mintage of the denominations has continued since, with no alterations in weight and fineness.
British coin
In 1817, following a major revision of British coinage, new versions of half sovereigns and sovereigns were introduced.
Production continued until 1926 and, apart from special issues for coronation years, was not restarted until 1980.[1] It was also used extensively in Australia, until 1933.
Modern half sovereigns, from 1817 onwards, have a diameter of 19.30 mm, a thickness of c. 0.99 mm, a weight of 3.99 g, are made of 22 carat (91+2⁄3%) crown gold alloy, and contain 0.1176 troy ounces (3.6575 g) of gold. The reverse side, featuring St. George slaying a dragon was designed by Benedetto Pistrucci, whose initials appear to the right of the date.[2]
Mintages
| Year | Coins minted |
|---|---|
| 1982 | 2,500,000 |
| 1983–1999 | limited edition proofs only |
| 2000 | 146,822 |
| 2001 | 94,763 |
| 2002 | 61,347 |
| 2003 | 47,818 |
| 2004 | 34,924 |
| 2005 | 30,299 |
Counterfeiting
The half sovereign is a "protected coin" for the purposes of Part II of the Forgery and Counterfeiting Act 1981.[3]
See also
- Quarter sovereign - introduced in 2009
References
- ^ https://www.chards.co.uk/blog/half-sovereigns-information-page/277
- ^ https://www.ngccoin.com/price-guide/world/great-britain-1-2-sovereign-km-819-1911-1915-cuid-1129956-duid-1327263
- ^ The Forgery and Counterfeiting Act 1981, section 27(1), as read with the Forgery and Counterfeiting (Protected Coins) Order 1981 (S.I. 1981/505), article 2 and Schedule
External links
- British Coins - Free information about British coins. Includes an online forum.
- Online Coin Club / Coins from United Kingdom / Half Sovereign (Pre-Decimal)
Coins of England | ||
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| Silver | .png) | |
| Gold |
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| Copper and tin | ||
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