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Ryosuke Furui, Professor of Ancient and Early Medieval History of South Asia at [[University of Tokyo]], feels that the varṇasaṃkara myth and the subsequent ordaining of ''Saṃkar''as in Brh. P. merely reflected and reinforced the existing social hierarchy of ancient Bengal while allowing the Brahmin authors to understand an alien society and get themselves established at the top — that is, the Ambasthas held a preeminent position in pre-Brahminic Bengal and practiced medicine.<ref name=":6" />{{efn|The Bṛhaddharma Purana has been long understood to be a tool of integrating the local Bengali society into a Brahminical framework of caste.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Furui|first=Ryosuke|date=2013-12-01|title=Brāhmaṇas in Early Medieval Bengal: Construction of their Identity, Networks and Authority|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0376983613499676|journal=Indian Historical Review|language=en|volume=40|issue=2|pages=223–248|doi=10.1177/0376983613499676|issn=0376-9836}}</ref> Furui senses the express prohibitions on Ambastha/Baidyas to read the Puranas (despite granting them the Ayurveda) as indicative of a fear of encroachment upon Brahmin intellectual domain and a tacit acknowledgement of groups trained in alternate forms of knowledge; the deeming of Ambastha/Baidyas as ''Saṃkarottama''were concessional transactions where Brahmins entered into co operational agreements with other groups but commanded nominal authority.<ref name=":6" />}}{{efn|In any case, whether the Bṛhaddharma Puraṇa succeeded in materializing and sustaining the Brahminical visions of Bengali society is doubtful; the medieval law commentary [[Dāyabhāga]] shares few things in common with Bṛhaddharma Purana.<ref name=":6" />}} However, it is disputed if the Ambasthas of Brh. P. were really the Baidyas of late-medieval Bengal; Baidyas would claim to be Ambasthas, only c. 17th century onward.<ref name=":10" /> Projit Bihari Mukharji rejects such equivalence and notes that the title had meant different things in different contexts across the history of India; it was always a <nowiki>''</nowiki>post-facto<nowiki>''</nowiki> label claimed by different groups in their reinvention of themselves.<ref name=":3" /> Jyotirmoyee Sarma hypothesizes that both the groups might have followed the same profession and eventually merged into one.<ref name=":10" />
Ryosuke Furui, Professor of Ancient and Early Medieval History of South Asia at [[University of Tokyo]], feels that the varṇasaṃkara myth and the subsequent ordaining of ''Saṃkar''as in Brh. P. merely reflected and reinforced the existing social hierarchy of ancient Bengal while allowing the Brahmin authors to understand an alien society and get themselves established at the top — that is, the Ambasthas held a preeminent position in pre-Brahminic Bengal and practiced medicine.<ref name=":6" />{{efn|The Bṛhaddharma Purana has been long understood to be a tool of integrating the local Bengali society into a Brahminical framework of caste.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Furui|first=Ryosuke|date=2013-12-01|title=Brāhmaṇas in Early Medieval Bengal: Construction of their Identity, Networks and Authority|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0376983613499676|journal=Indian Historical Review|language=en|volume=40|issue=2|pages=223–248|doi=10.1177/0376983613499676|issn=0376-9836}}</ref> Furui senses the express prohibitions on Ambastha/Baidyas to read the Puranas (despite granting them the Ayurveda) as indicative of a fear of encroachment upon Brahmin intellectual domain and a tacit acknowledgement of groups trained in alternate forms of knowledge; the deeming of Ambastha/Baidyas as ''Saṃkarottama''were concessional transactions where Brahmins entered into co operational agreements with other groups but commanded nominal authority.<ref name=":6" />}}{{efn|In any case, whether the Bṛhaddharma Puraṇa succeeded in materializing and sustaining the Brahminical visions of Bengali society is doubtful; the medieval law commentary [[Dāyabhāga]] shares few things in common with Bṛhaddharma Purana.<ref name=":6" />}} However, it is disputed if the Ambasthas of Brh. P. were really the Baidyas of late-medieval Bengal; Baidyas would claim to be Ambasthas, only c. 17th century onward.<ref name=":10" /> Projit Bihari Mukharji rejects such equivalence and notes that the title had meant different things in different contexts across the history of India; it was always a <nowiki>''</nowiki>post-facto<nowiki>''</nowiki> label claimed by different groups in their reinvention of themselves.<ref name=":3" /> Jyotirmoyee Sarma hypothesizes that both the groups might have followed the same profession and eventually merged into one.<ref name=":10" />


Nripendra Kumar Dutt had argued that the Baidyas were erstwhile Brahmins, who were forced to give up their sacred thread and follow Sudra rituals when Brahmin law-makers chose to reify the Parshuram myth via Brh. P. and other literature.<ref name="Dutt1965">{{cite book|author=Nripendra Kumar Dutt|title=Origin and Growth of Caste in India: Vol. II: Castes in Bengal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I3JDAAAAYAAJ|year=1965|publisher=Firma K. L. Mukhopadhyay}}</ref>{{efn|Deriving from Bṛh. P. and Dharmashastra, Dutt and Poonam Bala had ''actually'' equated them to be the [[Ambashtha|Ambasthas]] of Dharmashastra and hypothesized them to carry the caste/gotra of Brahmin father! No evidence is provided in support.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3" />}}
Nripendra Kumar Dutt had argued that the Baidyas were old Brahmins, who were forced to give up their sacred thread and follow Sudra rituals when Brahmin law-makers chose to reify the Parshuram myth via Brh. P. and other literature.<ref name="Dutt1965">{{cite book|author=Nripendra Kumar Dutt|title=Origin and Growth of Caste in India: Vol. II: Castes in Bengal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I3JDAAAAYAAJ|year=1965|publisher=Firma K. L. Mukhopadhyay}}</ref>{{efn|Deriving from Bṛh. P. and Dharmashastra, Dutt and Poonam Bala had ''actually'' equated them to be the [[Ambashtha|Ambasthas]] of Dharmashastra and hypothesized them to carry the caste/gotra of Brahmin father! No evidence is provided in support.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3" />}}


=== Late Ancient and Medieval Bengal ===
=== Late Ancient and Medieval Bengal ===

Revision as of 13:39, 26 July 2021

For the occupation, see Vaidhya.

Baidya[1] or Vaidya[2] is a Hindu community of Bengal who have generally claimed Brahmin status. In the pre-colonial era of Bengal, Baidyas were regarded as the highest Hindu castes, along with Bengali Brahmins and Kayasthas. In the colonial era, the Baidyas along with the Bengali Brahmins and Kayasthas formed the elite group of "Bhadraloks".[1]

History

Located far away from North India, Bengal exhibits a convoluted caste-hierarchy where discrimination persists but the praxis of varna significantly deviates from Brahminical theory.

Origins

The terms Baidya literally means a physician in the Bengali and Sanskrit languages; they were (probably) Ayurveds by profession and drew people from various varnas including Brahmins.[3][4] A wide variety of overlapping and contradictory myths concerning their origins are mentioned in genealogies — some mention a migration from South India and some from Kannauj.[5][6] The Baidyas had (likely) crystallized into a caste-community (jati) before the Sultanate rule.[5][7]

Puraṇas

Bṛhaddharma Puraṇa (Brh. P.; c. 13th century[a]) is the earliest document to chronicle a hierarchy of castes in Bengal.[7][8] The Brahma Vaivarta Purana (Bv. P.) — notable for a very late Bengali recension (c. 14/15th c.) — names a hierarchy of castes but varies in details.[9][10][8] Older sources on social hierarchy include inscriptions of the Gupta and the Pala periods but Baidyas are not mentioned.[8]

Brh. P. does not mention Baidyas separately but the Ambasthas, who are linked to varṇasaṃkara via the Venu-Prthu myth.[8][9][b] Products of forbidden union among Brahmin fathers and Vaishya mothers, during the reign of Venu, they were classified as Uttama Saṃkaras (highest of mixed classes).[12][9][10] After Venu was deposed by the Gods, Prthu was installed as a Vishnu reincarnate.[9] During his reign, the Brahmins were asked to restore dharma and they proposed to integrate all the Saṃkaras into the four varnas.[9] In the process, Ambasthas were brought under Sudras, purposed as Baidyas (physicians) in light of preexisting capacities, and conferred a solitary right to Ayurveda.[9][10][c] Alongside, they had to undergo a second birth to penance for bearing the Svarnakaras from Vaishya mothers - this is noted to be their identifying characteristic.[9][10] They were then noted as one of the Satsudras (higher Sudras) and endowed with the right of inviting Srotriya Brahmins for rituals as well as accepting service from lower Sudras; one stanza even notes them to be Saṃkarottama (best of Saṃkaras).[9]

Bv. P. treats the Baidyas as separate to Ambasthas and note them to be Satsudras.[8] Ashvin had a Brahmin pilgrim raped, and she (along with the illegitimate son) were driven out by her husband.[13] This son was then brought up by Ashvin, who taught him Ayurveda.[13] And he went on to be the progenitor of Baidyas.[13]

Ryosuke Furui, Professor of Ancient and Early Medieval History of South Asia at University of Tokyo, feels that the varṇasaṃkara myth and the subsequent ordaining of Saṃkaras in Brh. P. merely reflected and reinforced the existing social hierarchy of ancient Bengal while allowing the Brahmin authors to understand an alien society and get themselves established at the top — that is, the Ambasthas held a preeminent position in pre-Brahminic Bengal and practiced medicine.[9][d][e] However, it is disputed if the Ambasthas of Brh. P. were really the Baidyas of late-medieval Bengal; Baidyas would claim to be Ambasthas, only c. 17th century onward.[8] Projit Bihari Mukharji rejects such equivalence and notes that the title had meant different things in different contexts across the history of India; it was always a ''post-facto'' label claimed by different groups in their reinvention of themselves.[7] Jyotirmoyee Sarma hypothesizes that both the groups might have followed the same profession and eventually merged into one.[8]

Nripendra Kumar Dutt had argued that the Baidyas were old Brahmins, who were forced to give up their sacred thread and follow Sudra rituals when Brahmin law-makers chose to reify the Parshuram myth via Brh. P. and other literature.[3][f]

Late Ancient and Medieval Bengal

In late-ancient and medieval Bengal, Baidyas held important social posts and often branched out into fields other than medicine.[5][15] The Bhatera Copper Plates mention one minister of King Isandeva (c. 1050) to be of the Baidya vamsa.[16] A significant percentage of the elites in Sultanate, Mughal, and Nawabi Bengal were from Baidyas.[5][17][g] Around the early fifteenth century, Baidyas became intricately associated with the Chaitanya Cult alongside Brahmins.[7] As the cult shunned doctrines of equality, some Baidyas began enjoying a quasi-Brahminic status as Gaudiya Vasihnava gurus.[7][h]

Overall, the Baidyas incurred significant social mobility and by sixteenth century, were probably occupying the second tier in the local social hierarchy alongside Brahmins and Kayasthas of Bengal.[5][7][18] Marriages with Bengali Kayasthas were commonplace.[7] However, the Chandimangal of Mukundaram Chakrabarti (c. mid 16th century CE) still places the Baidyas below Vaisyas (but above the Kayasthas), indicating a Sudra status.[12] Projit Bihari Mukharji, Martin Meyerson Professor in History & Sociology of Science at the University of Pennsylvania, notes that a detailed history of Baidyas' upward mobility is yet to be produced.[7]

Colonial Bengal

The debate about their caste status would continue well into the eighteenth, nineteenth and twentieth centuries.[7][19][20] C. 1750, Raja Rajballabh wished to have Brahmins officiate at his rituals; he sought Vaishya status for the Baidyas and claimed a right of wearing sacred thread.[21][22][23] On facing opposition from other Baidya zamindars (who thought this to be an attempt at gaining trans-samaj acceptance as a Baidya leader) and Brahmin scholars of Vikrampur, he invited 131 Brahmins from Benaras, Kanauj, Navadwip and other regions with expertise in Nyaya Shastra.[21][22] All of them adjudicated in his favor and Baidyas have worn the sacred thread ever since.[21][22]

However, Baidyas now sought equality with the Brahmins, claiming themselves to be "Gauna (secondary) Brahmins" leveraging the recently conferred right to upanayana.[5][7] Beginning 1822, Brahmin and Baidya scholars produced a series of polemical pamphlets against one another and in 1831, the Baidya Samaj was formed by Khudiram Bisharad, a teacher at the Native Medical Institution to defend class interests.[7] Under his advocacy, Baidyas were granted the right to study Sanskrit texts alongside Brahmins.[7][i] Gangadhar Ray produced voluminous literature to put forward partisan claims on Baidyas descending from Brahmins.[7] Soon, Binodlal Sen published the Chandraprabha and the Ratnaprabha — the two oldest Baidya kulajis (genealogies) which claimed to support Ray's claims.[7]

All these caste-advocacy were enmeshed with another nineteenth-century Baidya project of modernizing Ayurveda — Sen declared the genealogical works to be free for anyone who purchased above a certain value of medications and Baidya medicine distributors frequently sold revisionist caste-histories.[7] Notwithstanding these contestations, the dominance of Baidyas continued unabated into the colonial rule when they took to Western forms of education proactively and held a disproportionate share of government jobs, elite professions, and landholding.[7][j] Unquestionably established as among the "upper castes" by mid nineteenth century, they would be the building block of Bhadralok Samaj alongside Brahmins and Kayasthas.[1][26][27][k]

In early twentieth century, Gananath Sen, the first dean of the Faculty of Ayurveda at the Banaras Hindu University opened a "Baidya Brahman Samiti" in Kolkata; he contended that the Baidyas were not merely equal to Brahmins but identical to them and went as far as to advocate that all Baidyas change their surnames to Sharma, a Brahmin patronymic.[7] The Bhadraloks would be instrumental in demanding democratic reforms across the early twentieth century but refuse to part with their own privilege at the cost of middle and lower castes.[28][27]

Modern Bengal

Baidyas continue to wield significant socio-economic power in modern Bengal as part of Bhadraloks — in absence of rigorous data, the precise extents are difficult to determine.[29] The theory about Baidyas being ex-brahmins continue to persist and they use the surname of Sharma among others.[30][31]

Notes

  1. ^ Ludo Rocher however notes the text to contain multiple layers (like all other Puranas) making any dating impossible. However, he agrees with R. C. Hazra that a significant part was composed as a response to the Islamic conquest of Bengal.
  2. ^ The myth is very popular across a large set of Indian scriptures.[11] It probably has Indio-European origins.[11]
  3. ^ All the Saṃkaras were classed under Sudras, true to the tradition of Bengal having only two varnas: Brahmins and Sudras.
  4. ^ The Bṛhaddharma Purana has been long understood to be a tool of integrating the local Bengali society into a Brahminical framework of caste.[14] Furui senses the express prohibitions on Ambastha/Baidyas to read the Puranas (despite granting them the Ayurveda) as indicative of a fear of encroachment upon Brahmin intellectual domain and a tacit acknowledgement of groups trained in alternate forms of knowledge; the deeming of Ambastha/Baidyas as Saṃkarottamawere concessional transactions where Brahmins entered into co operational agreements with other groups but commanded nominal authority.[9]
  5. ^ In any case, whether the Bṛhaddharma Puraṇa succeeded in materializing and sustaining the Brahminical visions of Bengali society is doubtful; the medieval law commentary Dāyabhāga shares few things in common with Bṛhaddharma Purana.[9]
  6. ^ Deriving from Bṛh. P. and Dharmashastra, Dutt and Poonam Bala had actually equated them to be the Ambasthas of Dharmashastra and hypothesized them to carry the caste/gotra of Brahmin father! No evidence is provided in support.[2][7]
  7. ^ Vaidyas (in particular) were also reputed for their proficiency in Sanskrit courtesy the need to read Sanskrit treatises of medicine.[5]
  8. ^ However, it must be borne in mind that the Baidya jati was not a homogeneous unit.[7] The community was divided into numerous endogamous samajes (societies) who exhibited strict conformation in rituals and social behavior.[7] There were Shaivite Baidya samajes, with a marked antipathy for Vaishnava cult.[7] Often these samajes were further divided into sthans (places) which had variable degree of autonomy.[7]
  9. ^ For an instance, Calcutta Sanskrit College barred Shudras from admission, initially allowing only Brahmins and Baidyas to enroll until Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar introduced admission for Kayasthas.[24]
  10. ^ In the 1921 census, they were the most literate community in Bengal. To quote David L. Curley, Baidyas were "serving in local revenue administrations, managing rent and revenue collections for zamindars, obtaining or providing short-term agrarian and mercantile credit, engaging in trade as agents or partners of the English and French East India Companies and acquiring zamindari estates."[25]
  11. ^ Jyotirmoyee Sarma notes that the Baidyas already had the highest of "secular rank" (bhadralok) but yet strove (to the fascination of external observers) for the highest of "ceremonial/scriptural rank" (brahmin).

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c Bandyopādhyāẏa, Śekhara (2004). Caste, Culture and Hegemony: Social Dominance in Colonial Bengal. SAGE. p. 24,25, 240. ISBN 978-0-76199-849-5.
  2. ^ a b Dutt, Nripendra Kumar (1968). Origin and growth of caste in India, Volume 2. Firma K. L. Mukhopadhyay. p. 70.
  3. ^ a b Nripendra Kumar Dutt (1965). Origin and Growth of Caste in India: Vol. II: Castes in Bengal. Firma K. L. Mukhopadhyay.
  4. ^ Sharma, Tej Ram (1978). Personal and Geographical Names in the Gupta Empire. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company. p. 115.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g Chatterjee, Kumkum (2010-10-01). "Scribal elites in Sultanate and Mughal Bengal". The Indian Economic & Social History Review. 47 (4): 445–472. doi:10.1177/001946461004700402. ISSN 0019-4646.
  6. ^ Chatterjee, Kumkum (2005-09-01). "Communities, Kings and Chronicles: The Kulagranthas of Bengal". Studies in History. 21 (2): 173–213. doi:10.1177/025764300502100203. ISSN 0257-6430.
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v Mukharji, Projit Bihari (2016-10-14). "A Baidya-Bourgeois World: The Sociology of Braided Sciences". Doctoring Traditions: Ayurveda, Small Technologies, and Braided Sciences. University of Chicago Press. doi:10.7208/9780226381824-003. ISBN 978-0-226-38182-4.
  8. ^ a b c d e f g Sarma, Jyotirmoyee (1987). Caste Dynamics Among the Bengali Hindus. Firma KLM. pp. 14, 20.
  9. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Furui, Ryosuke (2013). "Finding Tensions in the Social Order: a Reading of the Varṇasaṃkara Section of the Bṛhaddharmapurāṇa". In Ghosh, Suchandra; Bandyopadhyay, Sudipa Ray; Majumdar, Sushmita Basu; Pal, Sayantani (eds.). Revisiting Early India: Essays in Honour of D. C. Sircar. Kolkata: R. N. Bhattacharya.
  10. ^ a b c d Nicholas, Ralph W. (1995). "The Effectiveness of the Hindu Sacrament (Samskara): Caste, Marriage, and Divorce in Bengali Culture". In Harlan, Lindsey; Courtright, Paul B. (eds.). From the Margins of Hindu Marriage: Essays on Gender, Religion, and Culture. Oxford University Press. pp. 145–152.
  11. ^ a b O'Flaherty, Wendy Doniger (1976). "THE SPLIT CHILD: Good and Evil Within Men". The Origins of Evil in Hindu Mythology. Hermeneutics: Studies in the History of Religions. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 321–369.
  12. ^ a b Sanyal, Hitesranjan (1971). "Continuities of Social Mobility in Traditional and Modern Society in India: Two Case Studies of Caste Mobility in Bengal". The Journal of Asian Studies. 30 (2): 315–339. doi:10.2307/2942917. ISSN 0021-9118.
  13. ^ a b c Majumdar, R. C.; Ganguly, D. C.; Hazra, R. C. "Society". In Majumdar, R. C. (ed.). History Of Bengal. The University of Dacca. p. 571.
  14. ^ Furui, Ryosuke (2013-12-01). "Brāhmaṇas in Early Medieval Bengal: Construction of their Identity, Networks and Authority". Indian Historical Review. 40 (2): 223–248. doi:10.1177/0376983613499676. ISSN 0376-9836.
  15. ^ Inden, Ronald B. (1976). Marriage and Rank in Bengali Culture: A History of Caste and Clan in Middle Period Bengal. University of California Press. pp. 28–29. ISBN 978-0-52002-569-1.
  16. ^ Kundu, Narottam (1963). Caste and Class in Pre-Muslim Bengal: Studies in Social History of Bengal (Thesis). SOAS University of London. p. 108. doi:10.25501/SOAS.00033939.
  17. ^ Mukherjee, S. N. (1970). "Caste, Class and Politics in Calcutta, 1815-1838". In Leach, Edmund; Mukherjee, S. N. (eds.). Elites in South Asia. Cambridge University Press. pp. 55–56.
  18. ^ Mukherjee, Ramkrishna (1957). The Dynamics of a Rural Society. Popular Prakashan. p. 89. ISBN 978-81-7155-215-3.
  19. ^ Haag, Pascale (2012). "I Wanna Be a Brahmin Too. Grammar, Tradition and Mythology as Means for Social Legitimisation among the Vaidyas in Bengal". In Watanabe, Chikafumi; Honda, Yoshichika (eds.). Sanskrit Sadhuta: Goodness of Sanskrit : Studies in Honour of Professor Ashok Aklujkar. Delhi: DK Printworld. ISBN 9788124606315.
  20. ^ Kochhar, Rajesh (2008). "Seductive Orientalism: English Education and Modern Science in Colonial India". Social Scientist. 36 (3/4): 49–50. ISSN 0970-0293.
  21. ^ a b c Dasgupta, Ratan (2011-12-01). "Maharaja Krishnachandra: Religion, Caste and Polity in Eighteenth Century Bengal". Indian Historical Review. 38 (2): 225–242. doi:10.1177/037698361103800204. ISSN 0376-9836.
  22. ^ a b c Wright, Samuel (2021-04-01). "Scholar Networks and the Manuscript Economy in Nyāya-śāstra in Early Colonial Bengal". Journal of Indian Philosophy. 49 (2): 323–359. doi:10.1007/s10781-020-09449-8. ISSN 1573-0395.
  23. ^ Curley, David L. (2008). Poetry and History: Bengali Maṅgal-kābya and Social Change in Precolonial Bengal. Collection of Open Access Books and Monographs. CEDAR, University of Washington. pp. 33–34.
  24. ^ Bayly, C. A. (10 November 2011). Recovering Liberties: Indian Thought in the Age of Liberalism and Empire. pp. 144–145. ISBN 9781139505185.
  25. ^ Curley, David L. (January 2020). "Styles of mastery of a Calcutta Brahman family: Krishnachandra Ghoshal's pilgrimage to Gaya, Kashi and Prayag, 1769, in Vijayram Sen's Ti-rthaman.gala". The Indian Economic & Social History Review. 57 (1): 80. doi:10.1177/0019464619892893. ISSN 0019-4646.
  26. ^ Partition and the mysterious disappearance of caste in Bengal. Routledge India. 2015-09-25. doi:10.4324/9781315686318-13/partition-mysterious-disappearance-caste-bengal-partha-chatterjee. ISBN 978-1-315-68631-8.
  27. ^ a b O'Dell, Benjamin D. (2014). "BEYOND BENGAL: GENDER, EDUCATION, AND THE WRITING OF COLONIAL INDIAN HISTORY". Victorian Literature and Culture. 42 (3): 547. ISSN 1060-1503.
  28. ^ "The return of caste to Bengal". The Indian Express. 2021-04-01. Retrieved 2021-07-25.
  29. ^ Chatterjee, Partha (2015). "Partition and the mysterious disappearance of caste in Bengal". In Chandra, Uday; Heierstad, Geir; Nielsen, Kenneth Bo (eds.). The Politics of Caste in West Bengal. London: Routledge. pp. 84–85.
  30. ^ Lipner, Julius (2012-10-02). Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices. Routledge. p. 133. ISBN 978-1-135-24061-5.
  31. ^ Raj, Christopher S.; McAndrew, Marie, eds. (2009). Multiculturalism: Public Policy and Problem Areas in Canada and India. Canada: Manak Publications. p. 90.
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