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The Christian cross is the universal religious symbol of Christendom. It is associated with the instrument on which Jesus was executed.

Some Christians deny that Jesus was put to death on a cross, but rather, a wooden stake. Some believe the cross to have origins based in paganism, and therefore should have no place in Christianity. Based on Biblical commands some do not worship any images, including the cross.

In support of those who reject the cross, some experts conclude the cross was altogether unknown by first-century Christians but was used from the second-century onwards.

The cross and the death of Jesus

The New Testament recounts that Jesus died raised up on (Matthew 27:40–42; Mark 15:30–32), not just affixed to, what in Greek is called a σταυρός (stauros). The standard lexicographical work of the Greek language, while giving "cross" as one meaning of this word, indicates that its basic meaning is an "upright pale or stake" or a "pile" driven in to serve as a foundation.^[1] Certain scholars understand the New Testament accounts as referring to a single upright wooden stake without a crossbeam.^[2]

Acts 5:30 and Act 10:39Template:Bibleverse with invalid book speak of Jesus as hanged upon a ξύλον(xylon). This word means wood or timber, whether cut (to form a spoon, a club, a table, a gibbet) or a live tree,^[3]and so says nothing of the form of the gibbet on which Jesus died.

Since the 1930s Jehovah's Witnesses have taught that Christ died suspended not on a cross, but on a torture stake, claiming that this was the only meaning of the word σταυρός at the time when the New Testament was written. They consider use of the cross in worship as a pagan activity and veneration of it inappropriate.

However, the earliest writers, such as Irenaeus (c. 130-202),^[4] who speak of the shape of the gibbet on which Jesus died (and who were obviously well aware of how crucifixion was actually carried out under Roman rule) describe it as a cross, not a stake.

For information on the methods of crucifixion used by the Romans, see Crucifixion and, in specific relation to the world of Jesus, the study Crucifixion in Antiquity.

History of use of the symbol

During the first two centuries of Christianity, the cross was rare in Christian iconography as it depicts a purposely painful and gruesome method of public execution. The Ichthys, or fish symbol, was used by early Christians to covertly identify each other. The Chi-Rho monogram, which was adopted by the Constantine I in the fourth century as his banner called the labarum, was an Early Christian symbol of wider use.

However, by the early third century it had become so common that Clement of Alexandria, who died between 211 and 216, speaks of the cross as tou Kuriakou semeiou tupon, i.e. "the symbol of the Lord."^[5] And his contemporary Tertullian could designate the body of Christian believers as crucis religiosi, i.e. "devotees of the Cross".^[6]

Pre-Christian use of the cross symbol

The cross-shaped sign, represented in its simplest form by a crossing of two lines at right angles, greatly antedates, in both East and West, the introduction of Christianity. It goes back to a very remote period of human civilization. It is supposed to have been used not just for its ornamental value, but also with religious significance.^[7]

Some have sought to attach to the widespread use of this sign, in particular in its swastika form, a real ethnographic importance. It may have represented the apparatus used in kindling fire, and thus as the symbol of sacred fire (Burnouf, La science des religions) or as a symbol of the sun,^[8] denoting its daily rotation. It has also been interpreted as the mystic representation of lightning or of the god of the tempest, and even the emblem of the Aryan pantheon and the primitive Aryan civilization.

Another symbol that has been connected with the cross is the ansated cross (ankh or crux ansata) of the ancient Egyptians, which often appears as a symbolic sign in the hands of the goddess Sekhet, and appears as a hieroglyphic sign of life or of the living.^[9] In later times the Egyptian Christians (Copts), attracted by its form, and perhaps by its symbolism, adopted it as the emblem of the cross (Gayet, "Les monuments coptes du Musée de Boulaq" in "Mémoires de le mission française du Caire", VIII, fasc. III, 1889, p. 18, pl. XXXI-XXXII and LXX-LXXI).

In the bronze age we meet in different parts of Europe a more accurate representation of the cross, as conceived in Christian art, and in this shape it was soon widely diffused. This more precise characterization coincides with a corresponding general change in customs and beliefs. The cross is now met with, in various forms, on many objects: fibulas, cinctures, earthenware fragments, and on the bottom of drinking vessels. De Mortillet is of opinion that such use of the sign was not merely ornamental, but rather a symbol of consecration, especially in the case of objects pertaining to burial. In the proto-Etruscan cemetery of Golasecca every tomb has a vase with a cross engraved on it. True crosses of more or less artistic design have been found in Tiryns, at Mycenæ, in Crete, and on a fibula from Vulci..

On the basis of these facts, some writers have claimed that, in spite of the testimonies of the earliest writers who speak of veneration of the cross by Christians, Christianity, or rather "an apostate ecclesiastical system", adopted an essentially pagan symbol because they "had either departed from, or had travestied, certain doctrines of the Christian faith."^[10]

In contemporary Christianity

In Christendom the cross represents Christ's victory over death and sin, since it is believed that through His death he conquered death itself. Roman Catholic Christians often make the sign of the cross by moving their right hand so as to draw a cross upon themselves. Orthodox Christians make the sign with their right hand as well. Making the sign of the cross was already a common Christian practice in the time of Augustine. One of the twelve great feasts in the Eastern Orthodox Church is the Exaltation of the Cross on September 14, which commemorates the consecration of the basilica on the site where the (allegedly) original cross was discovered in 326 by Helena of Constantinople, mother of Constantine the Great. The Catholic Church celebrates the feast on the same day as the Triumph of the Holy Cross.

Relics

The Cross was the first of the Instruments of the Passion that came to be venerated in the form of relics. In time, even the "Holy Nails" that were used to nail Christ to the cross would be sought out, discovered, elaborately mounted as relics, and venerated by Christians. A nail, said to be one of these, is mounted in the Iron Crown of Lombardy, preserved in the cathedral of the former Lombard capital, Monza.

Numerous relics are claimed to be pieces of the True Cross. Scepticism was expressed in sixteenth-century writing and in Erasmus's joke that one could build a ship with all that wood. Santo Toribio de Liébana in Spain is claimed to hold the biggest piece, though it is little known outside of Spain. Even a large portion of what was claimed to be the cross of the "Good Thief" crucified with Jesus (who came to be given the name Dismas in medieval legend) is reverenced at Rome in the altar of the Chapel of the Relics at the church of Santa Croce in Gerusalemme.

A medieval legend pictured the wood of which the cross was fashioned as coming from the forbidden tree of Paradise and as having been venerated by the Queen of Sheba, when she visited King Solomon in Jerusalem.

Forms of the Cross

The cross is often shown in different shapes and sizes, in many different styles. It may be used in personal jewelry, or used on top of church buildings. It is shown both empty, and with the body of Christ (corpus) nailed to it, in which case it is typically called a crucifix, though this word, in its original sense, denotes the body affixed to the cross. Roman Catholic depictions of the cross are often crucifixes, in order to emphasize Christ's sacrifice. Many Protestant traditions depict the cross without the corpus, interpreting this form as an indication of belief in the resurrection rather than as representing the interval between the death and the resurrection of Jesus.

Crosses are a prominent feature of Christian cemeteries, either carved on gravestones or as sculpted stelas. Because of this death meaning, planting small crosses is sometimes used in countries of Christian culture to mark the site of fatal traffic accidents, or to protest alleged deaths.

Crosses have been erected or carved on pagan sites of worship like mountain tops or menhirs to counter their influences. In Catholic countries, crosses are often erected on the peaks of prominent mountains, such as the Zugspitze or Mount Royal, so as to be visible over the entire surrounding area.

Perhaps the best-known form of the Christian cross is that depicted here, called the Latin cross, an equal-armed cross with a longer foot. It may be so called because it is the type of cross used in the Latin (Roman Catholic) church, as opposed to the Eastern Orthodox cross.

Other forms of the Christian cross include:

Altar cross. Cross on a flat base to rest upon the altar. Earliest known example is a picture in a manuscript from the 9th century; by the 10th century they were commonly used, but the earliest extant altar cross is from the 12th century located at Great Lavra on Mt. Athos.
Andrew cross. Shaped like the letter X, the form of cross Saint Andrew was martyred on. A national symbol of Scotland. Also known as St. Andrew's Cross or crux decussata.
Ankh. Shaped like the letter T surmounted by an oval or circle. It is the Egyptian symbol for "life", it was adopted from the traditional dynastic cross symbol by the Copts (Egyptian Christians), also called a crux ansata.
Anthony's cross. Shaped like the letter T. Also called the Saint Anthony's cross or Tau cross. This is the actual historical form used by Romans for crucifixion, not the Latin cross. Also known as a crux commissa.
Archiepiscopal cross. Special cross carried by an archbishop.
Basque cross. The lauburu.
Calvary cross. A Gothic style, the cross is mounted on a base shaped to resemble Mt. Golgatha (where Christ was crucified), with the Virgin Mary and Saint John on either the base or crossarms.
Canterbury cross. A cross with four arms of equal length which widen to a hammer shape at the outside ends. Each arm has a triangular panel inscribed in a triquetra (three-cornered knot) pattern. There is a small square panel in the center of the cross. A symbol of the Anglican and Episcopal Churches.
Celtic Cross. Essentially a Latin cross, with a circle enclosing the intersection of the upright and crossbar, as in the standing High crosses;
Consecration cross. One of 12 crosses painted on the walls of a church to mark where it had been anointed during its consecration.
"Cross of name". See entry for "name cross".
Crux fourchette. A cross with flared or forked ends (see illustration at Crosses in Heraldry).
Crux gemmata. A cross inlaid with gems. Denotes a glorification of the cross, this form was inspired by the cult of the cross that arose after Saint Helena's discovery of the true cross in Jerusalem in 327.
Crux hasta. A cross with a long descending arm; a cross-staff.
Crux pattée. A Greek cross with flared ends.
Double cross. A cross with two crossbars. The upper one is shorter, representing the plaque nailed to Christ's cross, which said "Jesus of Nazareth King of the Jews". Also known as a crux gemina. Also called the Cross of Lorraine.
Gammadion. A hooked cross or swastika, also known as a crux gammata.
Globus cruciger. Globe cross. An orb surmounted by a cross; used in royal regalia.
Greek cross. With arms of equal length. One of the most common Christian forms, in common use by the 4th century.
Gnostic cross. Cross used by the early Gnostic sects.
Latin cross. With a longer descending arm. Along with the Greek cross, it is the most common form, it represents the cross of Christ's crucifixion.
Living cross. One of two possibilities: Either a natural cross made of living vines and branches. Or, a man-made cross with vines or plants planted at its base. In the all-natural version, it refers to the legend that Christ's cross was made from the Tree of Life. In the man-made cross with plants planted at the base, it contrasts the "new" Tree of Life (the cross) with the Genesis Tree of Life. In both cases it shows Christ's death (the cross) as a redemption for original sin (Tree of Life).
Lorraine cross. See entry for "Double cross".
Maltese cross. A Greek cross with arms that taper into the center. The outer ends may be forked.
Marian Cross An adapted Latin cross used in the Catholic Church to emphasize devotion to Mary.
Occitan cross
Patriarchal cross. Like the Double cross, but with a third additional crossbar, each one shorter than the one below. A triple cross. Also called Eastern Orthodox cross or Papal cross.
Pectoral cross. A large cross worn around the neck by some clergy.
Peter cross. An upside down cross called Cross of St. Peter. In modern times also considered to be a symbol of the Devil and of Satanism.
Saltire. Associated with St. Andrew, patron of Scotland; and St. Patrick, patron of Ireland. Also known as crux decussata.
Stepped cross. A cross resting on a base with several steps, in imitation of a monument built by Constantine in Constantinople.
Suppedaneum cross. A Russian and Byzantium form with an additional short crossbar, either horizontal or slanted near the base to represent Christ's footrest (suppedaneum).
Tau cross. See Anthony's cross.

In heraldry, while the overwhelming majority of forms of crosses are symbolic of Christianity, a very few, such as the cross moline, are not. See Crosses in Heraldry.

Compare the crossed circle of the Norse god Odin. 'Cross' itself is a word taken from Old Norse, which supplanted the former word 'rood' in Old English. See Roodmas, Rood screen, Rood loft.

Theological views of the metaphorical meaning of the word "cross"

A number of Christian Anabaptist theologians including John H. Yoder and Walter Wink suggest an alternative reading of the cross in Jesus's teaching. Instead of seeing Jesus instructions to "take up the cross" as simply a spiritual call to endure suffering, they interpret the phrase as a call to a life of radical Christian discipleship that may end in death at the hands of the state. For these theologians, accepting the possibility of crucifixion (often the penalty for political prisoners in Roman times) means rejecting the use of violence as well. This view would be most prevalent among Mennonites and other Peace churches with a history of martyrdom. This view is for the most part shared by Roman Catholic and Orthodox theologians, with the exception that they do not completely reject the use of violence.

Non-Christian views of Christian use of the cross symbol

For Muslims and Jews the symbol of the Cross is not sacrilegious: they believe God cannot be depicted in any physical form, but do not believe that Jesus is God. See Non-Christian perspectives on Jesus.

Footnotes

^ Liddell and Scott: σταυρός
^ : "There is not a single sentence in any of the numerous writings forming the New Testament, which, in the original Greek, bears even indirect evidence to the effect that the stauros used in the case of Jesus was other than an ordinary stauros; much less to the effect that it consisted, not of one piece of timber, but of two pieces nailed together in the form of a cross. ... it is not a little misleading upon the part of our teachers to translate the word stauros as 'cross' when rendering the Greek documents of the Church into our native tongue, and to support that action by putting 'cross' in our lexicons as the meaning of stauros without carefully explaining that that was at any rate not the primary meaning of the word in the days of the Apostles, did not become its primary signification till long afterwards, and became so then, if at all, only because, despite the absence of corroborative evidence, it was for some reason or other assumed that the particular stauros upon which Jesus was executed had that particular shape" (John Denham Parsons, The Non-Christian Cross, London, 1896, pp. 23, 24.
Vine's Expository Dictionary of New Testament Words says, "STAUROS denotes, primarily, an upright pole or stake...Both the noun and the verb stauroo, to fasten to a stake or pole, are originally to be distinguished from the ecclesiastical form of a two-beamed cross. The shape of the latter had its origin in ancient Chaldea (Babylon), and was used as the symbol of the god Tammuz (being in the shape of the mystic Tau, the initial of his name)...By the middle of the 3rd century A.D. the churches had either departed from, certain doctrines of the Christian faith. In order to increase the prestige of the apostate ecclesiastical system pagans were received into the churches apart from regeneration by faith, and were permitted largely to retain their pagan signs and symbols. Hence the Tau or T, in its most frequent form, with the cross piece lowered, was adopted..."
The 11th edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, vol. 14, p. 273, is quoted as saying: "In the Egyptian churches the cross was a pagan symbol of life borrowed by the Christians and interpreted in the pagan manner." This makes no declaration on the form of the instrument on which Jesus died, and the 1911 edition expressly states that the form used for the crucifixion of Jesus was that whereby, "after the scourging at the stake, the criminal was made to carry a gibbet, formed of two transverse bars of wood, to the place of execution, and he was then fastened to it by iron nails driven through the outstretched arms and through the ankles."[1]
^ A Greek-English Lexicon
^ Adversus Haereses, II, xxiv, 4
^ Stromata, book VI, chapter XI
^ Apology., chapter xvi. In this chapter and elsewhere in the same book, Tertullian clearly distinguishes between a cross and a stake.
^ "Various objects, dating from periods long anterior to the Christian era, have been found, marked with crosses of different designs, in almost every part of the old world. India, Syria, Persia and Egypt have all yielded numberless examples . . . The use of the cross as a religious symbol in pre-Christian times and among non-Christian peoples may probably be regarded as almost universal, and in very many cases it was connected with some form of nature worship" (Encyclopaedia Britannica (1946), Vol. 6, p. 753.
^ Bertrand, La religion des Gaulois, p. 159; and cf. "These crosses were used as symbols of the Babylonian sun-god, [See book], and are first seen on a coin of Julius Caear, 100-44 B.C., and then on a coin struck by Caear’s heir (Augustus), 20 B.C. On the coins of Constantine the most frequent symbol is [See book]; but the same symbol is used without the surrounding circle, and with the four equal arms vertical and horizontal; and this was the symbol specially venerated as the ‘Solar Wheel’. It should be stated that Constantine was a sun-god worshipper, and would not enter the ‘Church’ till some quarter of a century after the legend of his having seen such a cross in the heavens" The Companion Bible, Appendix No. 162
^ "The cross in the form of the ‘Crux Ansata’ . . . was carried in the hands of the Egyptian priests and Pontiff kings as the symbol of their authority as priests of the Sun god and was called ‘the Sign of Life.’"(The Worship of the Dead (London, 1904), by Colonel J. Garnier, p. 226.
^ "The shape of the [two-beamed cross] had its origin in ancient Chaldea, and was used as the symbol of the god Tammuz (being in the shape of the mystic Tau, the initial of his name) in that country and in adjacent lands, including Egypt. By the middle of the 3rd cent. A.D. the churches had either departed from, or had travestied, certain doctrines of the Christian faith. In order to increase the prestige of the apostate ecclesiastical system pagans were received into the churches apart from regeneration by faith, and were permitted largely to retain their pagan signs and symbols. Hence the Tau or T, in its most frequent form, with the cross-piece lowered, was adopted to stand for the cross of Christ"(An Expository Dictionary of New Testament Words (London, 1962), by W. E. Vine, p. 256

Gallery

Here are some examples of crosses:

File:Tomb of francisco franco.jpg

References

Koch, Rudolf (1955). The Book of Signs. Dover, NY. ISBN 0-486-20162-7.
Webber, F.W. (1927, rev 1938). Church Symbolism. Cleveland, OH. ASIN B00085OMWE.

External links

[1] Liddell and Scott: σταυρός

[2] : "There is not a single sentence in any of the numerous writings forming the New Testament, which, in the original Greek, bears even indirect evidence to the effect that the stauros used in the case of Jesus was other than an ordinary stauros; much less to the effect that it consisted, not of one piece of timber, but of two pieces nailed together in the form of a cross. ... it is not a little misleading upon the part of our teachers to translate the word stauros as 'cross' when rendering the Greek documents of the Church into our native tongue, and to support that action by putting 'cross' in our lexicons as the meaning of stauros without carefully explaining that that was at any rate not the primary meaning of the word in the days of the Apostles, did not become its primary signification till long afterwards, and became so then, if at all, only because, despite the absence of corroborative evidence, it was for some reason or other assumed that the particular stauros upon which Jesus was executed had that particular shape" (John Denham Parsons, The Non-Christian Cross, London, 1896, pp. 23, 24.
Vine's Expository Dictionary of New Testament Words says, "STAUROS denotes, primarily, an upright pole or stake...Both the noun and the verb stauroo, to fasten to a stake or pole, are originally to be distinguished from the ecclesiastical form of a two-beamed cross. The shape of the latter had its origin in ancient Chaldea (Babylon), and was used as the symbol of the god Tammuz (being in the shape of the mystic Tau, the initial of his name)...By the middle of the 3rd century A.D. the churches had either departed from, certain doctrines of the Christian faith. In order to increase the prestige of the apostate ecclesiastical system pagans were received into the churches apart from regeneration by faith, and were permitted largely to retain their pagan signs and symbols. Hence the Tau or T, in its most frequent form, with the cross piece lowered, was adopted..."
The 11th edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, vol. 14, p. 273, is quoted as saying: "In the Egyptian churches the cross was a pagan symbol of life borrowed by the Christians and interpreted in the pagan manner." This makes no declaration on the form of the instrument on which Jesus died, and the 1911 edition expressly states that the form used for the crucifixion of Jesus was that whereby, "after the scourging at the stake, the criminal was made to carry a gibbet, formed of two transverse bars of wood, to the place of execution, and he was then fastened to it by iron nails driven through the outstretched arms and through the ankles."[1]

[3] A Greek-English Lexicon

[4] Adversus Haereses, II, xxiv, 4

[5] Stromata, book VI, chapter XI

[6] Apology., chapter xvi. In this chapter and elsewhere in the same book, Tertullian clearly distinguishes between a cross and a stake.

[7] "Various objects, dating from periods long anterior to the Christian era, have been found, marked with crosses of different designs, in almost every part of the old world. India, Syria, Persia and Egypt have all yielded numberless examples . . . The use of the cross as a religious symbol in pre-Christian times and among non-Christian peoples may probably be regarded as almost universal, and in very many cases it was connected with some form of nature worship" (Encyclopaedia Britannica (1946), Vol. 6, p. 753.

[8] Bertrand, La religion des Gaulois, p. 159; and cf. "These crosses were used as symbols of the Babylonian sun-god, [See book], and are first seen on a coin of Julius Caear, 100-44 B.C., and then on a coin struck by Caear’s heir (Augustus), 20 B.C. On the coins of Constantine the most frequent symbol is [See book]; but the same symbol is used without the surrounding circle, and with the four equal arms vertical and horizontal; and this was the symbol specially venerated as the ‘Solar Wheel’. It should be stated that Constantine was a sun-god worshipper, and would not enter the ‘Church’ till some quarter of a century after the legend of his having seen such a cross in the heavens" The Companion Bible, Appendix No. 162

[9] "The cross in the form of the ‘Crux Ansata’ . . . was carried in the hands of the Egyptian priests and Pontiff kings as the symbol of their authority as priests of the Sun god and was called ‘the Sign of Life.’"(The Worship of the Dead (London, 1904), by Colonel J. Garnier, p. 226.

[10] "The shape of the [two-beamed cross] had its origin in ancient Chaldea, and was used as the symbol of the god Tammuz (being in the shape of the mystic Tau, the initial of his name) in that country and in adjacent lands, including Egypt. By the middle of the 3rd cent. A.D. the churches had either departed from, or had travestied, certain doctrines of the Christian faith. In order to increase the prestige of the apostate ecclesiastical system pagans were received into the churches apart from regeneration by faith, and were permitted largely to retain their pagan signs and symbols. Hence the Tau or T, in its most frequent form, with the cross-piece lowered, was adopted to stand for the cross of Christ"(An Expository Dictionary of New Testament Words (London, 1962), by W. E. Vine, p. 256

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 The '''Christian cross''' is the universal [[religious symbol]] of [[Christendom]]. It is associated with the instrument on which Jesus was executed.
-Some Christians deny that Jesus was put to death not on a cross, but rather, a wooden stake. Some believe the cross to have origins based in paganism, and therefore should have no place in Christianity. Based on Biblical commands some do not worship any images, including the cross.
+Some Christians deny that Jesus was put to death on a cross, but rather, a wooden stake. Some believe the cross to have origins based in paganism, and therefore should have no place in Christianity. Based on Biblical commands some do not worship any images, including the cross.
 In support of those who reject the cross, some experts conclude the cross was altogether unknown by first-century Christians but was used from the second-century onwards.