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===Power nap===
===Power nap===
{{Main|Power nap}}
{{Main|Power nap}}
A [[power nap]], also known as a Stage 2 nap, is a short slumber of 20 minutes or less which terminates before the occurrence of deep [[slow-wave sleep]], intended to quickly revitalize the napper. The power nap is meant to maximize the benefits of sleep versus time. It is used to supplement normal sleep, especially when a sleeper has accumulated a [[sleep debt|sleep deficit]].
A [[power nap]], also known as a Stage 2 nap, is a short slumber of 20 minutes or less which terminates before the occurrence of deep [[slow-wave sleep]], intended to quickly revitalize the napper. The power nap is meant to maximize the benefits of sleep versus time. It is used to supplement normal sleep, especially when a sleeper has accumulated a [[sleep debt|sleep deficit]]. The greater the sleep deficit, however, the effective the nap.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=1987-07-01 |title=Temporal Placement of a Nap for Alertness: Contributions of Circadian Phase and Prior Wakefulness |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/sleep/10.4.313 |journal=Sleep |doi=10.1093/sleep/10.4.313 |issn=1550-9109}}</ref>


===Prescribed napping for sleep disorders===
===Prescribed napping for sleep disorders===
It has been shown that [[excessive daytime sleepiness]] (EDS) can be improved by prescribed napping in [[narcolepsy]].<ref name=Takashi2003>Takashi, M. (2003). The role of prescribed napping in sleep medicine. Sleep Medicine Reviews, Vol. 7, No. 3, pp 227±235, doi:[https://doi.org/10.1053/smrv.2002.0241 10.1053/smrv.2002.0241]</ref> Apart from narcolepsy, it has not been demonstrated that naps are beneficial for EDS in other sleep disorders.<ref name=Takashi2003 />
It has been shown that [[excessive daytime sleepiness]] (EDS) can be improved by prescribed napping in [[narcolepsy]].<ref name=Takashi2003>Takashi, M. (2003). The role of prescribed napping in sleep medicine. Sleep Medicine Reviews, Vol. 7, No. 3, pp 227±235, doi:[https://doi.org/10.1053/smrv.2002.0241 10.1053/smrv.2002.0241]</ref> Apart from narcolepsy, it has not been demonstrated that naps are beneficial for EDS in other sleep disorders.<ref name=Takashi2003 />

=== Learning and Memory ===
Research suggests that shorter, habitual naps after instruction offer the most benefits to learning.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lemos |first=Nathalia |last2=Weissheimer |first2=Janaina |last3=Ribeiro |first3=Sidarta |date=2014-06-03 |title=Naps in school can enhance the duration of declarative memories learned by adolescents |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fnsys.2014.00103 |journal=Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience |volume=8 |doi=10.3389/fnsys.2014.00103 |issn=1662-5137}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Ji |first=Xiaopeng |last2=Li |first2=Junxin |last3=Liu |first3=Jianghong |date=2018-02 |title=The Relationship Between Midday Napping And Neurocognitive Function in Early Adolescents |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15402002.2018.1425868 |journal=Behavioral Sleep Medicine |volume=17 |issue=5 |pages=537–551 |doi=10.1080/15402002.2018.1425868 |issn=1540-2002}}</ref> The benefits to alertness show no change based on duration of the nap for combating [[post-lunch dip]], even for naps as short as 10 minutes<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Takahashi |first=Masaya |last2=Nakata |first2=Akinori |last3=Haratani |first3=Takashi |last4=Ogawa |first4=Yasutaka |last5=Arito |first5=Heihachiro |date=2004-07-15 |title=Post-lunch nap as a worksite intervention to promote alertness on the job |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00140130410001686320 |journal=Ergonomics |language=en |volume=47 |issue=9 |pages=1003–1013 |doi=10.1080/00140130410001686320 |issn=0014-0139}}</ref>. Napping enhances alertness in young adults and adolescents during afternoons’ performances, which affect efficiency<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Takahashi |first=Masaya |last2=Fukuda |first2=Hideki |last3=Arito |first3=Heihachiro |date=1998-06-01 |title=Brief naps during post-lunch rest: effects on alertness, performance, and autonomic balance |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s004210050392 |journal=European Journal of Applied Physiology |volume=78 |issue=2 |pages=93–98 |doi=10.1007/s004210050392 |issn=1439-6319}}</ref>. Additionally, pre-teens who nap regularly during the day demonstrate better sleep at night. In younger children, napping increased drowsiness even while improving memory recall.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tietzel |first=Amber J. |last2=Lack |first2=Leon C. |date=2002-09 |title=The recuperative value of brief and ultra-brief naps on alertness and cognitive performance |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2869.2002.00299.x |journal=Journal of Sleep Research |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=213–218 |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2869.2002.00299.x |issn=0962-1105}}</ref>

For students of all ages, napping during the school day showed benefits to reaction time and recall of [[declarative memory]] of new information, especially if the naps remain in [[slow-wave sleep]], i.e. less than an hour in length.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=TUCKER |first=M |last2=HIROTA |first2=Y |last3=WAMSLEY |first3=E |last4=LAU |first4=H |last5=CHAKLADER |first5=A |last6=FISHBEIN |first6=W |date=2006-09 |title=A daytime nap containing solely non-REM sleep enhances declarative but not procedural memory |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nlm.2006.03.005 |journal=Neurobiology of Learning and Memory |volume=86 |issue=2 |pages=241–247 |doi=10.1016/j.nlm.2006.03.005 |issn=1074-7427}}</ref><ref name=":0" />

=== Alertness and Fatigue ===
The [[Circadian rhythm|circadian cycle]] plays a role in the rising demand for day time naps: sleepiness rises towards mid afternoon, hence the best timing for naps is early afternoon (Stampi, 1992; Bertisch as cited in Bilodeau, 2021). 20-30-minute naps are recommended for adults, while young children and elderly people may need longer naps <ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009-11-01 |title=Napping May Not Be Such a No-No - Harvard Health Publications |url=https://www.health.harvard.edu/newsletter_article/napping-may-not-be-such-a-no-no |access-date=2023-02-18 |website=Harvard Health |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |date=1989-09-01 |title=Sleep-Wake Patterns and Subjective Sleep Quality of Day and Night Workers: Interaction Between Napping and Main Sleep Episodes |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/sleep/12.5.439 |journal=Sleep |doi=10.1093/sleep/12.5.439 |issn=1550-9109}}</ref>. Research, on the other hand, has shown that the benefits of napping depend on sleep onset and [[Sleep phase|sleep phases]] rather than time and duration.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jones |first=Bethany J. |last2=Spencer |first2=Rebecca M. C. |date=2020-12 |title=Role of Napping for Learning Across the Lifespan |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s40675-020-00193-9 |journal=Current Sleep Medicine Reports |language=en |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=290–297 |doi=10.1007/s40675-020-00193-9 |issn=2198-6401 |pmc=PMC8011550 |pmid=33816064}}</ref>


==Negative effects==
==Negative effects==
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===Potential health risks===
===Potential health risks===
A 2016 [[meta-analysis]] showed that naps longer than an hour may be associated with an increased risk for [[cardiovascular disease]], [[diabetes]], [[metabolic syndrome]] or death.<ref name="Yamada">{{cite journal | last=Yamada | first=Tomohide | last2=Shojima | first2=Nobuhiro | last3=Yamauchi | first3=Toshimasa | last4=Kadowaki | first4=Takashi | title=J-curve relation between daytime nap duration and type 2 diabetes or metabolic syndrome: A dose-response meta-analysis | journal=Scientific Reports |volume=6 | issue=1 | date=2016-12-02 | issn=2045-2322 | pmid=27909305 | pmc=5133463 | doi=10.1038/srep38075 | page=srep38075}}</ref> There was no effect of napping for as long as 40  minutes per day, but a sharp increase in risk of disease occurred at longer nap times.<ref name=Yamada/>
A 2016 [[meta-analysis]] showed that naps longer than an hour may be associated with an increased risk for [[cardiovascular disease]], [[diabetes]], [[metabolic syndrome]] or death.<ref name="Yamada">{{cite journal | last=Yamada | first=Tomohide | last2=Shojima | first2=Nobuhiro | last3=Yamauchi | first3=Toshimasa | last4=Kadowaki | first4=Takashi | title=J-curve relation between daytime nap duration and type 2 diabetes or metabolic syndrome: A dose-response meta-analysis | journal=Scientific Reports |volume=6 | issue=1 | date=2016-12-02 | issn=2045-2322 | pmid=27909305 | pmc=5133463 | doi=10.1038/srep38075 | page=srep38075}}</ref> There was no effect of napping for as long as 40  minutes per day, but a sharp increase in risk of disease occurred at longer nap times.<ref name=Yamada/>

Habitual naps are also an indicator of neurological degradation such as dementia in the elderly, as reduction in brain function causes more sleepiness.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mantua |first=Janna |last2=Spencer |first2=Rebecca M.C. |date=2017-09 |title=Exploring the nap paradox: are mid-day sleep bouts a friend or foe? |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2017.01.019 |journal=Sleep Medicine |volume=37 |pages=88–97 |doi=10.1016/j.sleep.2017.01.019 |issn=1389-9457}}</ref>


===On sleep disorders===
===On sleep disorders===
For idiopathic [[hypersomnia]], patients typically experience sleep inertia and are unrefreshed after napping.<ref>Choo, K. L., Guilleminault, C. (1998). Narcolepsy and idiopathic hypersomnolence. Clin Chest Med, 19: 169±181. doi:[https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-5231(05)70440-8 10.1016/S0272-5231(05)70440-8]</ref>
For idiopathic [[hypersomnia]], patients typically experience sleep inertia and are unrefreshed after napping.<ref>Choo, K. L., Guilleminault, C. (1998). Narcolepsy and idiopathic hypersomnolence. Clin Chest Med, 19: 169±181. doi:[https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-5231(05)70440-8 10.1016/S0272-5231(05)70440-8]</ref>

== Best Practices ==
How long and when you nap affects [[sleep inertia]] and [[Sleep onset latency|sleep latency]]: you are more likely to benefit in terms of those two points when you sleep moderately in the afternoon. According to research, the degree to which a person experiences sleep inertia differs in different durations of nap. Because sleep inertia is possibly resulting from awakening from [[Slow-wave sleep|Slow Wave Sleep]], it is more likely to happen when one has a longer nap.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Milner |first=Catherine E. |last2=Cote |first2=Kimberly A. |date=2009-06 |title=Benefits of napping in healthy adults: impact of nap length, time of day, age, and experience with napping |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2869.2008.00718.x |journal=Journal of Sleep Research |language=en |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=272–281 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2869.2008.00718.x}}</ref> Sleep inertia is less intense after short naps<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Santos |first=Jefferson Souza |last2=Beijamini |first2=Felipe |last3=Louzada |first3=Fernando Mazzilli |date=2021-07-28 |title=Napping Behavior in Adolescents: Consensus, Dissents, and Recommendations |url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s41782-021-00155-3 |journal=Sleep and Vigilance |language=en |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=189–196 |doi=10.1007/s41782-021-00155-3 |issn=2510-2265}}</ref>. Sleep latency is shorter when a nap is taken between 3pm - 5pm compared with a nap taken between 7pm - 9pm.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Shrivastava |first=Deepak |last2=Jung |first2=Syung |last3=Saadat |first3=Mohsen |last4=Sirohi |first4=Roopa |last5=Crewson |first5=Keri |date=2014-01 |title=How to interpret the results of a sleep study |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.3402/jchimp.v4.24983 |journal=Journal of Community Hospital Internal Medicine Perspectives |language=en |volume=4 |issue=5 |pages=24983 |doi=10.3402/jchimp.v4.24983 |issn=2000-9666 |pmc=PMC4246141 |pmid=25432643}}</ref>


According to The Sleep Foundation, Psychology Today and  Harvard Health Publishing, these are the best practices for napping<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Ultimate Napping: A How-To Guide {{!}} Psychology Today |url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/minding-the-body/201006/ultimate-napping-how-guide |access-date=2023-02-18 |website=www.psychologytoday.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |date=1989-09-01 |title=Sleep-Wake Patterns and Subjective Sleep Quality of Day and Night Workers: Interaction Between Napping and Main Sleep Episodes |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/sleep/12.5.439 |journal=Sleep |doi=10.1093/sleep/12.5.439 |issn=1550-9109}}</ref>:

* Set up a sleep-friendly environment: it is easier to take a nap when the place is dark, quiet and cool. Curtains, eye masks, ear plugs or gentle music will help.
* Understand your physical needs and make yourself comfortable: don’t feel guilty that you are taking a nap and don’t worry about actually falling asleep during nap time. Getting some rest is still helpful!
* Set an alarm: in order to prevent the negative impact of sleep inertia and sleep latency, it’s important to wake up on time.


==See also==
==See also==

Revision as of 10:19, 18 February 2023

For other uses, see Nap (disambiguation).

A man napping in a hammock, on a patio in Costa Rica

A nap is a short period of sleep, typically taken during daytime hours as an adjunct to the usual nocturnal sleep period. Naps are most often taken as a response to drowsiness during waking hours. A nap is a form of biphasic or polyphasic sleep, where the latter terms also include longer periods of sleep in addition to one single period.

For years, scientists have been investigating the benefits of napping, including the 30-minute nap as well as sleep durations of 1–2 hours. Performance across a wide range of cognitive processes has been tested.[1]

Benefits

Sara Mednick conducted a study experimenting on the effects of napping, caffeine, and a placebo. Her results showed that a 60–90-minute nap is more effective than caffeine in memory and cognition.[2]

Power nap

Main article: Power nap

A power nap, also known as a Stage 2 nap, is a short slumber of 20 minutes or less which terminates before the occurrence of deep slow-wave sleep, intended to quickly revitalize the napper. The power nap is meant to maximize the benefits of sleep versus time. It is used to supplement normal sleep, especially when a sleeper has accumulated a sleep deficit. The greater the sleep deficit, however, the effective the nap.[3]

Prescribed napping for sleep disorders

It has been shown that excessive daytime sleepiness (EDS) can be improved by prescribed napping in narcolepsy.[4] Apart from narcolepsy, it has not been demonstrated that naps are beneficial for EDS in other sleep disorders.[4]

Learning and Memory

Research suggests that shorter, habitual naps after instruction offer the most benefits to learning.[5][6] The benefits to alertness show no change based on duration of the nap for combating post-lunch dip, even for naps as short as 10 minutes[7]. Napping enhances alertness in young adults and adolescents during afternoons’ performances, which affect efficiency[8]. Additionally, pre-teens who nap regularly during the day demonstrate better sleep at night. In younger children, napping increased drowsiness even while improving memory recall.[9]

For students of all ages, napping during the school day showed benefits to reaction time and recall of declarative memory of new information, especially if the naps remain in slow-wave sleep, i.e. less than an hour in length.[10][6]

Alertness and Fatigue

The circadian cycle plays a role in the rising demand for day time naps: sleepiness rises towards mid afternoon, hence the best timing for naps is early afternoon (Stampi, 1992; Bertisch as cited in Bilodeau, 2021). 20-30-minute naps are recommended for adults, while young children and elderly people may need longer naps [11][12]. Research, on the other hand, has shown that the benefits of napping depend on sleep onset and sleep phases rather than time and duration.[13]

Negative effects

Sleep inertia

The state of grogginess, impaired cognition and disorientation experienced when awakening from sleep is known as sleep inertia.[14] This state reduces the speed of cognitive tasks but has no effects on the accuracy of task performance.[15] The effects of sleep inertia rarely last longer than 30 minutes in the absence of prior sleep deprivation.[16]

Potential health risks

A 2016 meta-analysis showed that naps longer than an hour may be associated with an increased risk for cardiovascular disease, diabetes, metabolic syndrome or death.[17] There was no effect of napping for as long as 40  minutes per day, but a sharp increase in risk of disease occurred at longer nap times.[17]

Habitual naps are also an indicator of neurological degradation such as dementia in the elderly, as reduction in brain function causes more sleepiness.[18]

On sleep disorders

For idiopathic hypersomnia, patients typically experience sleep inertia and are unrefreshed after napping.[19]

Best Practices

How long and when you nap affects sleep inertia and sleep latency: you are more likely to benefit in terms of those two points when you sleep moderately in the afternoon. According to research, the degree to which a person experiences sleep inertia differs in different durations of nap. Because sleep inertia is possibly resulting from awakening from Slow Wave Sleep, it is more likely to happen when one has a longer nap.[20] Sleep inertia is less intense after short naps[21]. Sleep latency is shorter when a nap is taken between 3pm - 5pm compared with a nap taken between 7pm - 9pm.[22]


According to The Sleep Foundation, Psychology Today and  Harvard Health Publishing, these are the best practices for napping[11][23][24]:

  • Set up a sleep-friendly environment: it is easier to take a nap when the place is dark, quiet and cool. Curtains, eye masks, ear plugs or gentle music will help.
  • Understand your physical needs and make yourself comfortable: don’t feel guilty that you are taking a nap and don’t worry about actually falling asleep during nap time. Getting some rest is still helpful!
  • Set an alarm: in order to prevent the negative impact of sleep inertia and sleep latency, it’s important to wake up on time.

See also

References

  1. ^ "NASA: Alertness Management: Strategic Naps in Operational Settings". 1995. Archived from the original on 19 April 2012. Retrieved 16 April 2012.
  2. ^ Mednick, S. C. et al. (2008). Comparing the benefits of caffeine, naps, and placebo on verbal, motor and perceptual memory. Behavioural Brain Research. 193: 79–86.
  3. ^ "Temporal Placement of a Nap for Alertness: Contributions of Circadian Phase and Prior Wakefulness". Sleep. 1 July 1987. doi:10.1093/sleep/10.4.313. ISSN 1550-9109.
  4. ^ a b Takashi, M. (2003). The role of prescribed napping in sleep medicine. Sleep Medicine Reviews, Vol. 7, No. 3, pp 227±235, doi:10.1053/smrv.2002.0241
  5. ^ Lemos, Nathalia; Weissheimer, Janaina; Ribeiro, Sidarta (3 June 2014). "Naps in school can enhance the duration of declarative memories learned by adolescents". Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience. 8. doi:10.3389/fnsys.2014.00103. ISSN 1662-5137.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  6. ^ a b Ji, Xiaopeng; Li, Junxin; Liu, Jianghong (2018-02). "The Relationship Between Midday Napping And Neurocognitive Function in Early Adolescents". Behavioral Sleep Medicine. 17 (5): 537–551. doi:10.1080/15402002.2018.1425868. ISSN 1540-2002. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  7. ^ Takahashi, Masaya; Nakata, Akinori; Haratani, Takashi; Ogawa, Yasutaka; Arito, Heihachiro (15 July 2004). "Post-lunch nap as a worksite intervention to promote alertness on the job". Ergonomics. 47 (9): 1003–1013. doi:10.1080/00140130410001686320. ISSN 0014-0139.
  8. ^ Takahashi, Masaya; Fukuda, Hideki; Arito, Heihachiro (1 June 1998). "Brief naps during post-lunch rest: effects on alertness, performance, and autonomic balance". European Journal of Applied Physiology. 78 (2): 93–98. doi:10.1007/s004210050392. ISSN 1439-6319.
  9. ^ Tietzel, Amber J.; Lack, Leon C. (2002-09). "The recuperative value of brief and ultra-brief naps on alertness and cognitive performance". Journal of Sleep Research. 11 (3): 213–218. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2869.2002.00299.x. ISSN 0962-1105. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  10. ^ TUCKER, M; HIROTA, Y; WAMSLEY, E; LAU, H; CHAKLADER, A; FISHBEIN, W (2006-09). "A daytime nap containing solely non-REM sleep enhances declarative but not procedural memory". Neurobiology of Learning and Memory. 86 (2): 241–247. doi:10.1016/j.nlm.2006.03.005. ISSN 1074-7427. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  11. ^ a b "Napping May Not Be Such a No-No - Harvard Health Publications". Harvard Health. 1 November 2009. Retrieved 18 February 2023.
  12. ^ "Sleep-Wake Patterns and Subjective Sleep Quality of Day and Night Workers: Interaction Between Napping and Main Sleep Episodes". Sleep. 1 September 1989. doi:10.1093/sleep/12.5.439. ISSN 1550-9109.
  13. ^ Jones, Bethany J.; Spencer, Rebecca M. C. (2020-12). "Role of Napping for Learning Across the Lifespan". Current Sleep Medicine Reports. 6 (4): 290–297. doi:10.1007/s40675-020-00193-9. ISSN 2198-6401. PMC 8011550. PMID 33816064. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
  14. ^ Dinges, D. F. (1990). Are you awake? Cognitive performance and reverie during the hypnopompic state. In: Bootzin, R., Kihlstrom, J., Schacter, D., eds. Sleep and Cognition. Washington, DC: American Psychological Society; 159–175. doi:10.1037/10499-012
  15. ^ Takashi, M. (2003). The role of prescribed napping in sleep medicine. Sleep Medicine Reviews, Vol. 7, No. 3, pp 227±235,doi: 10.1053/smrv.2002.0241
  16. ^ Tassi, P., Muzet, A. (2000). Sleep inertia. Sleep Medicine Reviews, Vol. 4, No. 4, pp 341–353, ISSN 1087-0792. doi:10.1053/smrv.2000.0098
  17. ^ a b Yamada, Tomohide; Shojima, Nobuhiro; Yamauchi, Toshimasa; Kadowaki, Takashi (2 December 2016). "J-curve relation between daytime nap duration and type 2 diabetes or metabolic syndrome: A dose-response meta-analysis". Scientific Reports. 6 (1): srep38075. doi:10.1038/srep38075. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 5133463. PMID 27909305.
  18. ^ Mantua, Janna; Spencer, Rebecca M.C. (2017-09). "Exploring the nap paradox: are mid-day sleep bouts a friend or foe?". Sleep Medicine. 37: 88–97. doi:10.1016/j.sleep.2017.01.019. ISSN 1389-9457. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  19. ^ Choo, K. L., Guilleminault, C. (1998). Narcolepsy and idiopathic hypersomnolence. Clin Chest Med, 19: 169±181. doi:10.1016/S0272-5231(05)70440-8
  20. ^ Milner, Catherine E.; Cote, Kimberly A. (2009-06). "Benefits of napping in healthy adults: impact of nap length, time of day, age, and experience with napping". Journal of Sleep Research. 18 (2): 272–281. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2869.2008.00718.x. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  21. ^ Santos, Jefferson Souza; Beijamini, Felipe; Louzada, Fernando Mazzilli (28 July 2021). "Napping Behavior in Adolescents: Consensus, Dissents, and Recommendations". Sleep and Vigilance. 5 (2): 189–196. doi:10.1007/s41782-021-00155-3. ISSN 2510-2265.
  22. ^ Shrivastava, Deepak; Jung, Syung; Saadat, Mohsen; Sirohi, Roopa; Crewson, Keri (2014-01). "How to interpret the results of a sleep study". Journal of Community Hospital Internal Medicine Perspectives. 4 (5): 24983. doi:10.3402/jchimp.v4.24983. ISSN 2000-9666. PMC 4246141. PMID 25432643. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
  23. ^ "Ultimate Napping: A How-To Guide | Psychology Today". www.psychologytoday.com. Retrieved 18 February 2023.
  24. ^ "Sleep-Wake Patterns and Subjective Sleep Quality of Day and Night Workers: Interaction Between Napping and Main Sleep Episodes". Sleep. 1 September 1989. doi:10.1093/sleep/12.5.439. ISSN 1550-9109.
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