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Olfactory signals, or smell, can influence the perception of attractiveness. Almost universally, the heavy [[body odor]] emitted by those with strongly smelling sweat or those who have not frequently [[bathing|bathed]] is considered unattractive (with the occasional exception of certain [[Sexual fetishism|fetish]]es). However, the smell of the human body, that is, insofar as it has not reached the unpleasant degree of ''body odor'', is often considered a sexually attractive factor. It is ''generally'' accepted that humans emit [[pheromone]]s, a form of chemical fragrance, which may cause them to be perceived as sexually attractive to others.<ref name= "Rikowski">Rikowski, A., & grammar, K. 1999</ref> Moreover, many human cultures favor the use of fragrant substances, such as [[perfume]] or [[cologne]], or of fragrant [[soap]]s and body products. Individuals using such fragrances are typically considered attractive in such cultures, and not exclusively sexually. Additionally, individuals who have freshly bathed, including young children, can often be considered highly "pleasant", "clean", or "beautiful".
Olfactory signals, or smell, can influence the perception of attractiveness. Almost universally, the heavy [[body odor]] emitted by those with strongly smelling sweat or those who have not frequently [[bathing|bathed]] is considered unattractive (with the occasional exception of certain [[Sexual fetishism|fetish]]es). However, the smell of the human body, that is, insofar as it has not reached the unpleasant degree of ''body odor'', is often considered a sexually attractive factor. It is ''generally'' accepted that humans emit [[pheromone]]s, a form of chemical fragrance, which may cause them to be perceived as sexually attractive to others.<ref name= "Rikowski">Rikowski, A., & grammar, K. 1999</ref> Moreover, many human cultures favor the use of fragrant substances, such as [[perfume]] or [[cologne]], or of fragrant [[soap]]s and body products. Individuals using such fragrances are typically considered attractive in such cultures, and not exclusively sexually. Additionally, individuals who have freshly bathed, including young children, can often be considered highly "pleasant", "clean", or "beautiful".


== Determinants of male physical attractiveness ==
===Physique===
Research has found that male physiques with slim waists are rated as being attractive, particularly by females.<ref name= "Archives of Sexual Behavior">Physical attractiveness: The influence of selected torso parameters" in Archives of Sexual Behavior Volume</ref>. Participants also identified physiques with relatively broad shoulder as being attractive. In addition, chest muscularity resulted in slightly higher attractiveness ratings.<ref name= "Archives of Sexual Behavior">Physical attractiveness: The influence of selected torso parameters" in Archives of Sexual Behavior Volume</ref>

===Height===
Female's sexual attraction towards a male can be partly determined by the [[Human height|height]] of the man.<ref name= "Pierce">Pierce C. A. 1996; Cunningham, M.R. 1990; Pawlowski B, Dunbar RI, Lipowicz A 2000</ref> Women seem more receptive to an erect posture than men, though both prefer it as an element of beauty; this fact appears correlated to the preference for males who demonstrate confidence, physical strength, and a powerful bearing.

Recent research has found that women are [[statistically]] more likely to be attracted to men of average height when looking for long term commitment while the opposite is true when a short term relationship is intended.<ref name= "Sohn">Sohn, E. ''Health'', Nov2005, Vol. 19 Issue 9, </ref> In addition it was found that women have these different preferences for height depending on the phase of their [[menstrual cycle]] at the time. While women usually desire men that are at least the same height as themselves, other factors also determine male attractiveness.<ref name= "Sohn">Sohn, E. ''Health'', Nov2005, Vol. 19 Issue 9, </ref>




Revision as of 01:43, 24 March 2007

Physical attractiveness is a kind of the qualities of person that have the power to attract, arouse interest, or instill pleasure.[1] The term may also apply to a group, race, or type of people. Traits may range from being deemed as extremely repulsive to those that are extremely attractive. Common scientific quantifiers used to measure "physical attractiveness" are averageness, symmetry, and youthfulness, as well as others, such as complexion, skin tone, vigor, etc. Physical attractiveness has a close relationship to beauty.

Moreover, attractiveness can include various implications, such as sexual attractiveness, cuteness, and physique. Judgment of attractiveness of physical traits is partly universal to all human cultures, partly dependent on culture or society or time period, and partly a matter of individual preference.

Physical attractiveness can have a significant effect on how people are judged, in terms of employment or social opportunities, friendship, sexual behavior, and marriage.[2] In many cases humans attribute positive characteristics, such as intelligence and honesty, to attractive people without consciously realizing it.

Koinophilia

Main article: Koinophilia

Since natural selection causes beneficial (or "fit") features to replace their disadvantageous counterparts, the beneficial features become increasingly more common with each generation, while the disadvantageous features become increasingly rare. A sexual creature, therefore, wishing to mate with a fit partner, would be expected to avoid individuals sporting unusual features, while being especially attracted to individuals with a predominance of common or average features. This is termed "Koinophilia". Koinophilia has, as an important side effect, that potential mates displaying mutant features (the result of a genetic mutation) are also avoided. This, in itself, is also advantageous, since the vast majority of mutations are disadvantageous. Since it is impossible to judge whether a new mutation is beneficial or not, koinophilic creatures will avoid them all with equal determination, even if this means avoiding the very occasional beneficial mutation. Thus, koinophilia, while not perfect or infallible in its ability to distinguish fit from unfit mates, remains far and away the best bet strategy when choosing a mate: it will be right far more often than it will be wrong. And, even when it is wrong, a koinophilic choice always ensures that the offspring will inherit a suite of tried and tested features.

This mating strategy was first refered to as koinophilia by Johan H. Koeslag, from the Greek, koinos, meaning "the usual" or "common", and philos, meaning "fondness" or "love".[3] It was tested in humans by Judith Langlois,[4] who found that the average of two human faces was usually more atractive than either of the faces from which the average was derived. The more faces (of the same gender and age) that were used in the averaging process the more attractive and appealing the average face became.

These results have been confirmed by many other investigators.[5][6][7] However, Perrett et al.[7] found that both men and women found a slightly off-average female face the most attractive from a wide range of women's faces with neutral expressions and identical hairstyles. When the non-average features were slightly exaggerated the face was judged more attractive still. Close examination of the photos in Perrett, May and Yoshikawa's paper[7] shows, in fact, that the exaggerated face looks younger than the average face (composed of women's faces aged 22-46 years). The differences are, however, very small, and, to many people, not immediately obvious. Since the same results were obtained with Japanese subjects, these findings are probably culture independent, and would indicate that people generally find young average female faces sexually the most attractive,[4] as expected.

Perception of physical attractiveness

Cultural, social, or time period environments can have a strong effect on the degree to which people determine certain traits to be attractive. As part of the socialization process, children typically learn what their culture or time period considers attractive. Children are shown examples of what is considered beautiful in the form of dolls and pictures on magazine covers. Perception of what is considered as attractive and appealing is also very heavily influenced by other dominant cultures and the impact of their value systems. There is a downside to being very attractive—it is assumed that beautiful men and women are far more likely to have extramarital affairs, seek divorce, carry sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) and are most likely to have sexual relationships that are considered to be inappropriate. Beautiful people are often considered to be unsuitable for marriage and child rearing as well. (Etcoff p.87)

Universal correlates of beauty

Strong correlations between attractiveness and particular physical properties have been found across cultures. Despite significant variation, there nonetheless exists a tremendous degree of agreement among cultures as to what is perceived as attractive when it is associated with human health. Healthier looking skin is universally associated with attractiveness. Infants, who presumably have not yet been affected by culture, tend to prefer the same faces considered attractive by adults. Some experiments have been done in America that support this finding.[8] These findings are used to imply that a large part of attractiveness is determined by inborn human nature - not nurture.

Olfactory factors

Olfactory signals, or smell, can influence the perception of attractiveness. Almost universally, the heavy body odor emitted by those with strongly smelling sweat or those who have not frequently bathed is considered unattractive (with the occasional exception of certain fetishes). However, the smell of the human body, that is, insofar as it has not reached the unpleasant degree of body odor, is often considered a sexually attractive factor. It is generally accepted that humans emit pheromones, a form of chemical fragrance, which may cause them to be perceived as sexually attractive to others.[9] Moreover, many human cultures favor the use of fragrant substances, such as perfume or cologne, or of fragrant soaps and body products. Individuals using such fragrances are typically considered attractive in such cultures, and not exclusively sexually. Additionally, individuals who have freshly bathed, including young children, can often be considered highly "pleasant", "clean", or "beautiful".

Determinants of male physical attractiveness

Physique

Research has found that male physiques with slim waists are rated as being attractive, particularly by females.[10]. Participants also identified physiques with relatively broad shoulder as being attractive. In addition, chest muscularity resulted in slightly higher attractiveness ratings.[10]

Height

Female's sexual attraction towards a male can be partly determined by the height of the man.[11] Women seem more receptive to an erect posture than men, though both prefer it as an element of beauty; this fact appears correlated to the preference for males who demonstrate confidence, physical strength, and a powerful bearing.

Recent research has found that women are statistically more likely to be attracted to men of average height when looking for long term commitment while the opposite is true when a short term relationship is intended.[12] In addition it was found that women have these different preferences for height depending on the phase of their menstrual cycle at the time. While women usually desire men that are at least the same height as themselves, other factors also determine male attractiveness.[12]


Determinants of female physical attractiveness

Main article: Sexual attraction

The determinants of female physical attractiveness include those aspects that display health and fitness for reproduction and sustenance. These include correlates of fertility such as waist-hip ratio,[13] mid upper arm circumference, body mass proportion[14] and facial symmetry.[15][16]

Height

Males exhibit a preference for females of shorter physical stature than themselves, and studies indicate that women of below average height have greater reproductive success.[17] An advantage to smaller size may be that smaller size may be seen as more youthful, and males find pedomorphic characteristics in females attractive.[18] Yet another possible explanation is that shorter females reach sexual maturity earlier than their taller counterparts.[17]

Waist-hip ratio

Scientists have discovered that the waist-hip ratio (WHR) is a significant factor in judging female attractiveness. Women with a 0.7 WHR (waist circumference that is 70% of the hip circumference) are invariably rated as more attractive by men, regardless of their culture.[13] The ratio would supposedly signal female fertility for evolutionary choices. Such diverse beauty icons as Marilyn Monroe, Sophia Loren, Beyoncé Knowles, Alessandra Ambrosio and the Venus de Milo all have ratios around 0.7.

Proportion of body mass to body structure

The Body Mass Index (BMI) is another important universal determinant to the perception of beauty.[14] The BMI refers to the proportion of the body mass to the body structure. However, the optimal body proportion is interpreted differently in various cultures. The Western ideal considers a slim and slender body mass as optimal while many historic cultures consider an embonpoint or plump body-mass as appealing. In either case, the underlying rule applied in determining beauty is the BMI, and hence displays how cultural differences of beauty operate on universal principles of human evolution.[19]

The slim ideal does not consider an emaciated body as attractive, just as the full-rounded ideal does not celebrate the over-weight or the obese. The cultural leanings are therefore just social emphasis on specific phenotypes within a parameter of optimal BMI.[citation needed]

The attraction for a proportionate body also influences an appeal for erect posture.[20]

Prototypicality as beauty

Besides biology and culture, there are other factors determining physical attractiveness. The more familiar a face seems, the more highly it is usually judged to be attractive, an example of the mere exposure effect. Also, when many faces are combined into a composite image (through computer morphing), people usually view the resulting image as more familiar, attractive, and beautiful than the faces that were combined to make the composite. One interpretation is that this shows an inherent human preference for prototypicality. That is, the resultant face emerges with the salient features shared by most faces, and hence becomes the prototype. The prototypical face and features is therefore perceived as symmetrical and familiar. This reveals an "underlying preference for the familiar and safe over the unfamiliar and potentially dangerous".[15] However, critics of this interpretation point out that compositing computer images also has the effect of removing skin blemishes such as scars, and generally softens sharp facial features.

Classical conceptions of beauty are essentially a celebration of this prototypicality. This shows the importance of prototypicality in the judgment of beauty, and also explains the emergence of similarity of the perception of attractiveness within a community or society, which shares a gene pool.

Skin color

Another feature is skin color on the spectrum of dark to light. As with most determinants of attractiveness, there are cultural differences: lighter tones are preferred by some cultures, while in others, tanned or darker skin is preferred.

In the 20th and 21st century Western world, tanned skin has often been considered highly attractive for both men and women. Here, the tan has come to carry with it connotations of having an active lifestyle, thus better (implied) physical health.

In earlier Western cultures, lighter skin was preferred, as it was considered a marker of a more "cultured" individual or "gentlewoman" who did not have to engage in outdoor labor.

In eastern parts of Asia, including Southeast Asia, this preference for lighter skin remains prevalent [2] (however, certain sub-cultures, such as the ganguro of Japan, indicate preference for a darker-skinned ideal as a statement against mainstream Japanese standards of beauty). In East Asia in particular, fair skin is associated with youth, since skin darkens with exposure to the sun and aging. This conflation of youth and beauty is not exclusive to East Asia, and can be linked to the phenomenon of neoteny. Thus, it is hardly surprising that sales of skin whitening cosmetic products are popular in East Asia. This liking for fair skin however is not a recent development, and in China, for example, can be traced back to ancient drawings depicting women and goddesses with fair skin tones. In those periods, Chinese brides were often described and praised to suitors as being fair-skinned, a trait usually only associated with girls from royalty or nobility who could afford to stay indoors most of the time.

Historical variations

19th century North American artwork: note the prominent eyes, small mouth (favored in some societies) and chin, and neotenic features (e.g. small hands and rounded cheeks)

Variations in perceptions of male attractiveness

Social effects of attractiveness

When a person is seen as attractive or unattractive, a whole set of assumptions are brought into play. Across cultures, what is beautiful is assumed to be good. Attractive people are assumed to be more extroverted, popular, and happy. There is truth in this — attractive people do tend to have these characteristics. However, this is probably due to self-fulfilling prophecy; from a young age, attractive people receive more attention that helps them develop positive characteristics.[21][22]

Physical attractiveness can have very real effects. A survey conducted by London Guildhall University of 11,000 people showed that those that subjectively describe themselves as physically attractive earn more than others that describe themselves as less attractive. Less attractive people earned, on average, 13% less than more attractive people, while the penalty for being overweight was around 5%.

The discrimination against or prejudice towards others based on their appearance is referred to as Lookism.

Many have asserted that certain advantages tend to come to those that are perceived as being more attractive, including the ability to get better jobs and promotions, receiving better treatment from authorities and the legal system, having more choices in romantic partners and, therefore, more power in relationships, and marrying into families with more money.[23][21][22] Some argue that the possession of a certain level of attractiveness (generally recognized as such) should be considered a form of privilege, akin to that of social class.[citation needed]

Interestingly, cultures differ in the details of how attractive people are seen. In capitalist cultures that value individuality, attractive people are seen as assertive and strong, while in some more collectivistic Asian cultures, attractive people are seen as being more sensitive and understanding.[citation needed]

Both men and women use physical attractiveness as a measure of how 'good' another person is. Men often tend to value attractiveness more than women[citation needed]. In fMRI brain scans published in 2004 by Rutgers University evolutionary anthropologist Helen Fisher, the early intense stages of falling in love showed clear differences in male and female brains.[24] Men, on average, tended to show more activity in two regions in the brain: one was associated with the integration of visual stimuli, and the second was with penile erection. Conversely, women in these early stages exhibited increased activity in several regions of the brain associated with memory recall. Fisher speculated the evolutionary source was in the need for females to identify males whose behavior over time suggested they would help the female raise her offspring.[3] However, in terms of behavior, some studies suggest little difference between men and women. Symmetrical men and women begin to have sexual intercourse earlier, have more sexual partners, engage in a wider variety of sexual activities and have more casual sex. They are also prone to infidelity and are more likely to have open marriages.(Etcoff pp.50-53,185-187)

Notes

  1. ^ Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary (2000), CD-ROM, Version 2.5
  2. ^ Lorenz, Kate. (2005). "Do Pretty People Earn More?" CNN.com
  3. ^ KOESLAG, J.H. (1990). Koinophilia groups sexual creatures into species, promotes stasis, and stabilizes social behavior. J. theor. Biol. 144, 15-35
  4. ^ a b LANGLOIS, J.H. & ROGGMAN, L. (1990). Attractive faces are only average. Psychol. Sci. 1, 115-121
  5. ^ ETCOFF, N. (1994). Beauty and the beholder. Nature (Lond) 368, 186-187
  6. ^ ENQUIST , M & GHIRLANDA, S. (1998). The secret of faces. Nature (Lond) 394, 826-827
  7. ^ a b c PERRETT D.I. et al. (1998). Effects of sexual dimorphism on facial attractiveness. Nature (Lond) 394, 884-887 Cite error: The named reference "Perrett et al. 1998" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  8. ^ Langlois et al, 1990.
  9. ^ Rikowski, A., & grammar, K. 1999
  10. ^ a b Physical attractiveness: The influence of selected torso parameters" in Archives of Sexual Behavior Volume
  11. ^ Pierce C. A. 1996; Cunningham, M.R. 1990; Pawlowski B, Dunbar RI, Lipowicz A 2000
  12. ^ a b Sohn, E. Health, Nov2005, Vol. 19 Issue 9,
  13. ^ a b Singh, D 1993
  14. ^ a b Tovee MJ, Reinhardt S, Emery JL, Cornelissen PL. 1998
  15. ^ a b Berscheid and Reis, 1998
  16. ^ Fink, B. & Penton-Voak, I.S. (2002)
  17. ^ a b BBC News: “Tall men ‘top husband stakes’”
  18. ^ [1]
  19. ^ Cunningham, M.R., Roberts, A.R., Barbee, A.P., Druen, P.B., & Wu, C.H. 1995
  20. ^ Furnham, Adrian, Melanie Dias, and Alastair McClelland 1998
  21. ^ a b Cash, T.F; Gillen, B; & Burns, D.S; 1977
  22. ^ a b Clark, M.S; & Mills, J. (1979)
  23. ^ De Santis, A; and Kayson, W. A; 1999
  24. ^ Fisher, Helen. (2004)

References and bibliography

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  • Ellen Berscheid and Harry T. Reis. "Attraction and Close Relationships". In Daniel T. Gilbert, Susan T. Fiske, and Gardner Lindzey, editors, Handbook of Social Psychology, pages 193-281. New York: McGrawHill, 1998.
  • Harper, B. "Beauty, Statute and the Labour Market: A British Cohort Study", Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 62, December 2000, pp773-802. Press release and summary
  • Fink, B. & Penton-Voak, I.S. (2002). Evolutionary Psychology of Facial Attractiveness. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 11(5). 154-158.
  • Grammer, K., Fink, B., Møller, A.P. & Thornhill, R. (2003). Darwinian Aesthetics: Sexual Selection and the Biology of Beauty. Biological Reviews, 78(3), 385-407.
  • Fisher, Helen. (2004) Why We Love : The Nature and Chemistry of Romantic Love, Henry Holt and Co.,
  • Cash, T.F; Gillen, B; & Burns, D.S; (1977) "Sexism and 'beautyism' in personnel consultant decision making." Journal of Applied Psychology, 62, 301-310.
  • Clark, M.S; & Mills, J. (1979) "Interpersonal attraction in exchange and communal relationships." Journal of Personality and social psychology, 37, 12-24.
  • Cunningham, M.R. (1990) "What do women want." Journal of personality & social psychology, 59, 61-72.
  • Singh, D; (1993) "Adaptive significance of female physical attractiveness: role of waist - to - hip ratio". Journal of personality and social psychology, 65, 293 - 307
  • Cunningham, M.R; Roberts, A.R; Barbee, A. P; Duren P.B; & Wu, C.H; (1995) "Their ideas of beauty are, on the whole, the same as ours: Consistency and Variability in the cross cultural perception of female physical attractiveness". Journal of Personality & social psychology, 68, 261 - 279.
  • De Santis, A; and Kayson, W. A; (1999) "Defendants charactersitics of attractiveness, race, & sex and sentencing decisions." Psychological reports, 81. 679 - 683.
  • Pierce C. A. (1996) Body Height and Romantic Attraction: A Meta-Analytic Test of the Male-Taller Norm, Social Behavior and Personality,24 (2), 143-150
  • Rikowski, A., & Grammer, K. (1999). Human body odour, symmetry and attractiveness Proceedings. of the Royal Society of London, Series B, 266, 869-874.
  • Buss, D. M. (1994). The evolution of desire: Strategies of human mating. New York: Basic Books.
  • Barber, N. (1995). The evolutionary psychology of physical attractiveness: Sexual selection and human morphology. Ethology and Sociobiology, 16, 395-424.
  • Fanzio, S. L., & Herzog, M. E. (1987). Judging physical attractiveness: What body aspects do we use? Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 13, 19-33.
  • Pawlowski B, Dunbar RI, Lipowicz A (2000) Evolutionary fitness: tall men have more reproductive success;Nature,13 Jan 2000, n. 403 (6766):156
  • Furnham, Adrian, Melanie Dias, and Alastair McClelland (1998) The role of body weight, waist-to-hip ratio, and breast size in judgments of female attractiveness. Sex Roles 39:311-26.
  • Tovee MJ, Reinhardt S, Emery JL, Cornelissen PL. (1998) Optimum body-mass index and maximum sexual attractiveness. Lancet; 352(9127):548
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  • Buss, D.M., & Barnes, M. (1986). Preferences in human mate selection. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 559-570.
  • Hughes, S.M., & Gallup, G.G. (2003). Sex differences in morphological predictors of sexual behavior. Shoulder to hip and waist to hip ratios. Evolution and Human Behavior, 24(3), 173-178.
  • Buss, D. M. (1985). Human mate selection. American Scientist, 73, 47-51.
  • Singh, D. (1995). Female judgment of male attractiveness and desirability for relationships: Role of waist-to-hip ratio and financial status. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(6), 1089-1101.
  • Waynforth, D. (2001) Mate Choice Trade-offs and Women's Preference for Physically Attractive Men. Human Nature 12:207-219.
  • Etcoff, Nancy (1996) Survival of the Prettiest:the science of beauty, New York , Anchor Books
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