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Undid revision 180376948 by Bakkouz (talk) - this is an article on depictions of Muhammad, there will be depictions here. Use talk?
Atari400 (talk | contribs)
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It is good to see so many editors completly ignorant of Shia views on this matter.
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| publisher = The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs, Vol. 34, No. 195.
| publisher = The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs, Vol. 34, No. 195.
| pages = 249-252
| pages = 249-252
}}</ref><ref name=a>{{cite book |author=Jonathan Bloom & Sheila Blair |title=Islamic Arts |publisher=London: Phaidon |year=1997 |pages=202}}</ref> The [[Qur'an]] does not explicitly forbid images of Muhammad, but there have been a few [[hadith]] (supplemental traditions) which have explicitly prohibited Muslims from creating the visual depictions of figures under any circumstances. Most [[Sunni]] and [[Shia]] Muslims therefore believe that visual depictions of the prophets generally should be prohibited, and they are particularly averse to visual representations of Muhammad.<ref name=USSC>{{cite web|url=http://www.supremecourtus.gov/about/north&southwalls.pdf|format=pdf|title=Courtroom Friezes: North and South Walls|author=Office of the Curator|date=May 8, 2003|accessdate=2007-07-08|work=Information Sheet, Supreme Court of the United States}}</ref> The key concern is that the use of images can encourage [[idolatry]], where the image becomes more important than what it represents. In [[Islamic art]], some visual depictions only show Muhammad with his face veiled, or symbolically represent him as a flame; other images, notably from Persia of the [[Ilkhanate]], and those made under the [[Ottomans]], show him fully.<ref name=best/>
}}</ref><ref name=a>{{cite book |author=Jonathan Bloom & Sheila Blair |title=Islamic Arts |publisher=London: Phaidon |year=1997 |pages=202}}</ref> The [[Qur'an]] does not explicitly forbid images of Muhammad, but there have been a few [[hadith]] (supplemental traditions) which have explicitly prohibited Muslims from creating the visual depictions of figures under any circumstances. Most contemporary [[Sunni]] Muslims therefore believe that visual depictions of the prophets generally should be prohibited, and they are particularly averse to visual representations of Muhammad.<ref name=USSC>{{cite web|url=http://www.supremecourtus.gov/about/north&southwalls.pdf|format=pdf|title=Courtroom Friezes: North and South Walls|author=Office of the Curator|date=May 8, 2003|accessdate=2007-07-08|work=Information Sheet, Supreme Court of the United States}}</ref> The key concern is that the use of images can encourage [[idolatry]], where the image becomes more important than what it represents. In [[Islamic art]], some visual depictions only show Muhammad with his face veiled, or symbolically represent him as a flame; other images, notably from Persia of the [[Ilkhanate]], and those made under the [[Ottomans]], show him fully.<ref name=best/>


Other Muslims have taken a more relaxed view. Some, particularly [[Shi'a]] scholars outside [[Iran]], accept respectful depictions, and use illustrations of Muhammad in books and architectural decoration, as have Sunnis at various points in the past.<ref name="Ali7">Ali, Wijdan. "[http://www2.let.uu.nl/Solis/anpt/ejos/pdf4/07Ali.pdf From the Literal to the Spiritual: The Development of Prophet Muhammad's Portrayal from 13th Century Ilkhanid Miniatures to 17th Century Ottoman Art]". In ''Proceedings of the 11th International Congress of Turkish Art'', eds. M. Kiel, N. Landman, and H. Theunissen. No. 7, 1&ndash;24. Utrecht, The Netherlands, August 23-28, 1999, p. 7</ref> However, many Muslims who take a stricter view of the traditions, will sometimes challenge any depiction of Muhammad, even if created and published by non-Muslims.<ref name=facts>{{cite web|url=http://www.religionfacts.com/islam/things/depictions-of-muhammad-in-islamic-art.htm|accessdate=2007-07-06|title=Islamic Figurative Art and Depictions of Muhammad|publisher=religionfacts.com}}</ref>
Other Muslims have taken a more relaxed view. Some, particularly [[Iran]]ian [[Shi'a]] scholars, accept respectful depictions, and use illustrations of Muhammad in books and architectural decoration, as have Sunnis at various points in the past.<ref name="Ali7">Ali, Wijdan. "[http://www2.let.uu.nl/Solis/anpt/ejos/pdf4/07Ali.pdf From the Literal to the Spiritual: The Development of Prophet Muhammad's Portrayal from 13th Century Ilkhanid Miniatures to 17th Century Ottoman Art]". In ''Proceedings of the 11th International Congress of Turkish Art'', eds. M. Kiel, N. Landman, and H. Theunissen. No. 7, 1&ndash;24. Utrecht, The Netherlands, August 23-28, 1999, p. 7</ref> However, many Muslims who take a stricter view of the traditions, will sometimes challenge any depiction of Muhammad, even if created and published by non-Muslims.<ref name=facts>{{cite web|url=http://www.religionfacts.com/islam/things/depictions-of-muhammad-in-islamic-art.htm|accessdate=2007-07-06|title=Islamic Figurative Art and Depictions of Muhammad|publisher=religionfacts.com}}</ref>


==Background==
==Background==

Revision as of 10:46, 27 December 2007

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Depictions of Muhammad, founder of the Islamic faith, are often contentious. Oral and written descriptions are readily accepted by all traditions of Islam, but there is disagreement about visual depictions.[1][2] The Qur'an does not explicitly forbid images of Muhammad, but there have been a few hadith (supplemental traditions) which have explicitly prohibited Muslims from creating the visual depictions of figures under any circumstances. Most contemporary Sunni Muslims therefore believe that visual depictions of the prophets generally should be prohibited, and they are particularly averse to visual representations of Muhammad.[3] The key concern is that the use of images can encourage idolatry, where the image becomes more important than what it represents. In Islamic art, some visual depictions only show Muhammad with his face veiled, or symbolically represent him as a flame; other images, notably from Persia of the Ilkhanate, and those made under the Ottomans, show him fully.[1]

Other Muslims have taken a more relaxed view. Some, particularly Iranian Shi'a scholars, accept respectful depictions, and use illustrations of Muhammad in books and architectural decoration, as have Sunnis at various points in the past.[4] However, many Muslims who take a stricter view of the traditions, will sometimes challenge any depiction of Muhammad, even if created and published by non-Muslims.[5]

Background

Most major religions have had times in their history when images of their religious figures were forbidden. In Judaism, one of the Ten Commandments forbid "graven images" of God. In Byzantine Christianity during the period of Iconoclasm (8th century, and again during the 9th century) visual representations were forbidden, and only the Cross could be depicted in churches. Even in modern times, there are disputes within different groups of Protestant Christians about the appropriateness of having religious icons of saints. The concern generally boils down to the concept of whether or not the image is becoming more important than what is being represented. [6] In Islam, although nothing in the Qu'ran explicitly bans images, there are some supplemental hadith which explicitly ban the drawing of images of any living creature; other hadith tolerate images, but never encourage them. Hence, visual depictions of Muhammad, or prophets such as Moses or Abraham, are avoided.[1][7][3]

Depiction by Muslims

Verbal descriptions

In one of the earliest sources, Ibn Sa'd's Kitab al-Tabaqat al-Kabir, there are numerous verbal descriptions of Muhammad. One description sourced to Ali ibn Abi Talib is as follows:

The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him, is neither too short nor too tall. His hairs are neither curly nor straight, but a mixture of the two. He is a man of black hair and large skull. His complexion has a tinge of redness. His shoulder bones are broad and his palms and feet are fleshy. He has long al-masrubah which means hair growing from neck to navel. He is of long eye-lashes, close eye-brows, smooth and shining fore-head and long space between two shoulders. When he walks he walks inclining as if coming down from a height. I never saw a man like him before him or after him. [8].

Athar Husain gives a non-pictorial description of his appearance, dress, etc. in "The Message of Mohammad". According to Husain, Muhammad was a little taller than average, sturdily built and muscular. His fingers were long. His hair, which was long, had waves, and he had a thick beard, which had seventeen gray hairs at the time of his death. He had good teeth and spare cheeks, brownish black eyes. His complexion was fair and he was very handsome. He walked fast with firm gait. He always kept himself busy with something, did not speak unnecessarily, always spoke to the point and without verbosity, and did not behave in an emotional way. He usually wore a shirt, trousers, a sheet thrown round the sholders and a turban, all spotlessly clean, rarely wearing the fine clothes that had been presented to him. He wanted others to wear simple, but always clean, clothes.[9]

Visual depictions

File:Muhammad on Mount Hira.jpg
Muhammad at Mount Hira (16th century Ottoman illustration of the Siyer-i Nebi)

The Qur'an forbids idolatry, but does not specifically forbid representative art.

Behold! he said to his father and his people, "What are these images, to which ye are (so assiduously) devoted?" They said, "We found our fathers worshipping them." He said, "Indeed ye have been in manifest error - ye and your fathers." (TOQ 52-54)

However, there are hadith, or recorded oral traditions, that seem to forbid any representational art:

Allah, Most High said: "And who is more unjust than those who try to create the likeness of My creation? Let them create an atom, or let them create a wheat grain, or let them create a barley grain."[10]
[...] All the painters who make pictures would be in the fire of Hell.[11]

Just like "drinking of wine was more sternly and unequivocally forbidden in the Qur'an then was painting of pictures, but drunkenness has been a common features from days of Umayyads down to modern time". Similarly "despite the fulminations of the theologians the painter went drawing the figures of men and animals". However, "the figure of Muhammad seldom occurs in a picture painted by a Muslim artist, and when it is found the face is generally veiled or the prophet is symbolically represented by a flame of golden light. This vary rarity of the subject matter" leads to presenting those figures in this article.[1]

T. W. Arnold says that "It was not merely Sunni schools of law but Shia jurists also who fulminated against this figured art. Because the Persians are Shiites, many Europeans writers have assumed that the Shia sect had not the same objection to representing living being as the rival set of the Sunni; but such an opinion ignores the fact that Shiisum did not become the state church in Persia until the rise of Safivid dynasty at the beginning of the 16th century."


Cinema

Very few films have featured Muhammad. The only modern one to do was the 1976 The Message, also known as Mohammad, Messenger of God. The movie focused on other persons and never directly showed Muhammad. When Muhammad was essential to a scene, the camera would show events from his point of view.[12]

  • A devotional cartoon called Muhammad (PBUH): The Last Prophet was released in 2004[13]

Two well-known Fatwas from Al-Azhar University and Shiite Council of Lebanon were issued about The Message.

"It is certainly probable that this is not the result of the creativity of the filmmakers but of the rules announced by the Islamic scholars of the Azhar and the Shiite Council of Lebanon, who prohibited any representation of Muhammad’s wives as well as of the Prophet himself."[12]

A more severe case occurred in Egypt in 1926, around the anticipated production of a film about the grandeur of the early days of Islam. Upon learning of this plan, the Islamic Al-Azhar University in Cairo alerted Egyptian public opinion, and published a juridical decision (fatwa), stipulating that Islam categorically forbids the representation of the prophet and his companions on the screen. King Fauad sent a severe warning to actor Youssef Wahbi, threatening to exile him and strip him of his Egyptian nationality"[14]

Other contemporary Shi'a scholars, outside Shi'a majority Iran, have taken a relaxed attitude towards pictures of Muhammad and his household, the Ahlul Bayt. A fatwa given by Ali al-Sistani, the Shi'a marja of Iraq, states that it is permissible to depict Muhammad, even in television or movies, if done with respect.[15][16]

Depiction by non-Muslims

Muhammad figures frequently in depictions of influential people in world history. Such depictions tend to be favourable or neutral in intent; one example can be found at the United States Supreme Court building in Washington, DC. A frieze including major historical lawgivers places Muhammad alongside Hammurabi, Moses, Confucius, and others. Because of a 1997 controversy surrounding the frieze, tourist materials have been edited so they call the depiction "a well-intentioned attempt by the sculptor to honor Muhammad" that "bears no resemblance to Muhammad."[17] In 1955, a statue of Muhammad was removed from a courthouse in New York City after the ambassadors of Indonesia, Pakistan, and Egypt requested its removal.[18] There have also been numerous book illustrations showing Muhammad.

Dante, in The Divine Comedy: Inferno, placed Muhammad in Hell, with his entrails hanging out (Canto 28):

No barrel, not even one where the hoops and staves go every which way, was ever split open like one frayed Sinner I saw, ripped from chin to where we below.
His guts hung between his legs and displayed His vital organs, including that wretched sack Which converts to whatever gets conveyed down the gullet.
As I stared at him he looked back And with his hands pulled his chest open, Saying, "See how I split open the crack in myself! See how twisted and broken Mohammed is!" Before me walks Ali, his face Cleft from chin to crown, grief–stricken.

This scene is frequently shown in illustrations of the Divina Commedia. For example it is represented in a 15th century fresco in Bologna, Italy, in the Church of San Petronio,[19] and artwork by Salvador Dali, Auguste Rodin, William Blake, and Gustave Doré.[20]

Recent controversies

See also: Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy

In 2002, Italian police reported that they had disrupted a terrorist plot to destroy a church in Bologna, Italy, which contains a 15th century fresco depicting an image of Muhammad.[19][21]

In 2005, a Danish newspaper published a set of editorial cartoons, many of which depicted Muhammad. In late 2005 and early 2006, Danish Muslim organizations ignited a controversy through public protests and by spreading knowledge of the publication of the cartoons.[6] Western Muslims generally said that it was not simply the depiction of Muhammad that was offensive, but the implication that Muhammad was somehow a supporter of terrorism.[7]

In 2006, the controversial American television program South Park, which had previously shown an image of Muhammad in the July 4, 2001 episode "Super Best Friends", attempted to satirize the Danish newspaper incident. In the episode "Cartoon Wars Part II", they intended to show Muhammad handing a salmon helmet to Peter Griffin, a fictional character in the Fox animated television show Family Guy. However, Comedy Central, the parent company of South Park, rejected the scene, citing concerns of violent protests in the Islamic world. The creators of South Park reacted by instead satirizing Comedy Central's double-standard for censorship, instead including a cartoon segment in which American president George W. Bush and Jesus defecate on the flag of the United States.[citation needed]

The Lars Vilks Muhammad drawings controversy began in July 2007 with a series of drawings by Swedish artist Lars Vilks which depicted the Islamic prophet Muhammad as a roundabout dog. Several art galleries in Sweden declined to show the drawings, citing security concerns and fear of violence. The controversy gained international attention after the Örebro-based regional newspaper Nerikes Allehanda published one of the drawings on August 18 to illustrate an editorial on self-censorship and freedom of religion.[22] While several other leading Swedish newspapers had published the drawings already, this particular publication led to protests from Muslims in Sweden as well as official condemnations from several foreign governments including Iran[23], Pakistan[24], Afghanistan[25], Egypt[26] and Jordan[27], as well as by the inter-governmental Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC).[28] The controversy occurred about one and a half year after the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy in Denmark in early 2006.

An additional controversy emerged in September 2007 when Bangladeshi cartoonist Arifur Rahman was detained on suspicion of disrespecting Muhammad. The Interim Government confiscated copies of the Prothom Alo newspaper issue in which Muhammad was caricatured. The cartoon consisted of a boy holding a cat conversing with an elderly Muslim in Bengali where the older man asks the boy his name and he replies "Babu". The older man chides him for not mentioning the name of the prophet Muhammad before his name. He then subsequently point to the cat and asks the boy what it is, and the boy replies "Muhammad the cat". The cartoon caused a firestorm in Bangladesh, with militant Islamists demanding that Rahman be executed for "blasphemy". A group of people torched copies of the paper after publication of the cartoon yesterday and several Islamic groups protested, saying the drawings ridiculed prophet Mohammad and his close aides.They demanded "exemplary punishment" of the paper's editor and the cartoonist. Bangladesh, however, does not have any blasphemy laws although it was earlier demanded by the same extreme right-wing Islamic groups.[1]

In December, 2007, controversy erupted in the Netherlands when Iranian artist Sooreh Hera exhibited photos of two Iranian gay men in a series of sexually provocative positions, wearing masks depicting Muhammad and his son-in-law Ali. The photo series was intended to highlight the hypocrisy the artist saw, of Muslim married men engaging in sexual relations with other men. The Hague Municipal Museum expressed interest in buying the series, but refused to display it, citing fear that it could "offend certain groups". Right wing politician Geert Wilders, leader of the Partij voor de Vrijheid (Party for Freedom), excoriated the museum’s decision, saying it was “based on fear”.[29]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c d T. W. Arnold (1919). ""An Indian Picture of Muhammad and His Companions"". The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs, Vol. 34, No. 195. pp. 249–252. Retrieved 2007-05-01. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  2. ^ Jonathan Bloom & Sheila Blair (1997). Islamic Arts. London: Phaidon. p. 202.
  3. ^ a b Office of the Curator (May 8, 2003). "Courtroom Friezes: North and South Walls" (pdf). Information Sheet, Supreme Court of the United States. Retrieved 2007-07-08.
  4. ^ Ali, Wijdan. "From the Literal to the Spiritual: The Development of Prophet Muhammad's Portrayal from 13th Century Ilkhanid Miniatures to 17th Century Ottoman Art". In Proceedings of the 11th International Congress of Turkish Art, eds. M. Kiel, N. Landman, and H. Theunissen. No. 7, 1–24. Utrecht, The Netherlands, August 23-28, 1999, p. 7
  5. ^ "Islamic Figurative Art and Depictions of Muhammad". religionfacts.com. Retrieved 2007-07-06.
  6. ^ a b Richard Halicks (February 12, 2006). "Images of Muhammad: Three ways to see a cartoon". Atlanta Journal-Constitution. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help); Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
  7. ^ a b "Explaining the outrage". Chicago Tribune. February 8, 2006. {{cite news}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
  8. ^ Ibn Sa'd -- Kitabh al-Tabaqat al-Kabir, as translated by S. Moinul and H.K. Ghazanfar, Kitab Bhavan, New Delhi, n.d.
  9. ^ "USC-MSA Compendium of Muslim Texts". Retrieved 2006-03-10.
  10. ^ Sahih Bukhari, Volume 9, Book 93, Number 648
  11. ^ Sahih Muslim, 24, 5272
  12. ^ a b Freek L. Bakker (January 2006). "The image of Muhammad in The Message, the first and only feature film about the Prophet of Islam" (pdf). Routledge, "Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations," Vol. 17, No.1. Retrieved 2007-07-06.
  13. ^ "Fine Media Group". Retrieved 2006-03-11.
  14. ^ Alessandra. Raengo & Robert Stam (2004). A Companion To Literature And Film. Blackwell Publishing. p. 31. ISBN 063123053X.
  15. ^ "Istifta". Retrieved 2006-03-10.
  16. ^ http://thriceholy.net/tolerance.html
  17. ^ "The Daily Republican: Supreme Court Frieze". {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |access= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  18. ^ "Archive "Montreal News Network": Images of Muhammad, Gone for Good". Retrieved 2006-03-10. {{cite web}}: |first= has numeric name (help); |first= missing |last= (help)
  19. ^ a b Philip Willan (June 24, 2002). "Al-Qaida plot to blow up Bologna church fresco". The Guardian. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
  20. ^ Ayesha Akram (February 11, 2006). "What's behind Muslim cartoon outrage". San Francisco Chronicle. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
  21. ^ "Italy frees Fresco Suspects". New York Times. August 22, 2002. {{cite news}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
  22. ^ Ströman, Lars (2007-08-18). "Rätten att förlöjliga en religion" (in Swedish). Nerikes Allehanda. Retrieved 2007-08-31.
    English translation: Ströman, Lars (2007-08-28). "The right to ridicule a religion". Nerikes Allehanda. Retrieved 2007-08-31.
  23. ^ "Iran protests over Swedish Muhammad cartoon". Agence France-Presse. 2007-08-27. Retrieved 2007-08-27.
  24. ^ "PAKISTAN CONDEMNS THE PUBLICATION OF OFFENSIVE SKETCH IN SWEDEN" (Press release). Pakistan Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 2007-08-30. Retrieved 2007-08-31.
  25. ^ Salahuddin, Sayed (2007-09-01). "Indignant Afghanistan slams Prophet Mohammad sketch". Reuters. Retrieved 2007-09-09.
  26. ^ Fouché, Gwladys (2007-09-03). "Egypt wades into Swedish cartoons row". The Guardian. Retrieved 2007-09-09.
  27. ^ "Jordan condemns new Swedish Mohammed cartoon". Agence France-Presse. 2007-09-03. Retrieved 2007-09-09.
  28. ^ "The Secretary General strongly condemned the publishing of blasphemous caricatures of prophet Muhammad by Swedish artist" (Press release). Organization of the Islamic Conference. 2007-08-30. Retrieved 2007-09-09.
  29. ^ ["Allah o gay bar"]; gayswithoutborders.com; Retrieved on 2007-12-06

External links

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