Acid

This article is about acids in chemistry. For the drug, see Lysergic acid diethylamide. For other uses, see Acid (disambiguation).

"Acidity" redirects here. For the novelette, see Acidity (Novelette).

An acid (from the Latin acidus meaning sour) is traditionally considered any chemical compound that, when dissolved in water, gives a solution with a hydrogen ion activity greater than in pure water, i.e. a pH less than 7.0. That approximates the modern definition of Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted and Martin Lowry, who independently defined an acid as a compound which donates a hydrogen ion (H⁺) to another compound (called a base). Common examples include acetic acid (in vinegar) and sulfuric acid (used in car batteries). Acid/base systems are different from redox reactions in that there is no change in oxidation state. Acids can occur in solid, liquid or gaseous form, depending on the temperature. They can exist as pure substances or in solution.

Chemicals or substances having the property of an acid are said to be acidic (adjective).

Definitions and concepts

Main article: Acid–base reaction

Arrhenius acids

The Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius attributed the properties of acidity to hydrogen in 1884. An Arrhenius acid is a substance that increases the concentration of the hydronium ion, H₃O⁺, when dissolved in water. This definition stems from the equilibrium dissociation of water into hydronium and hydroxide (OH^-) ions:

H₂O(l) + H₂O(l) ⇌ H₃O⁺(aq) + OH^-(aq)

In pure water the majority of molecules exist as H₂O, but a small number of molecules are constantly dissociating and re-associating. Pure water is neutral with respect to acidity or basicity because the concentration of hydroxide ions is always equal to the concentration of hydronium ions. An Arrhenius base is a molecule which increases the concentration of the hydroxide ion when dissolved in water. Note that chemists often write H⁺(aq) and refer to the hydrogen ion when describing acid-base reactions but the free hydrogen nucleus, a proton, does not exist alone in water, it exists as the hydronium ion, H₃O⁺.

Brønsted acids

While the Arrhenius concept is useful for describing many reactions, it is also quite limited in its scope. In 1923 chemists Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted and Thomas Martin Lowry independently recognized that acid-base reactions involve the transfer of a proton. A Brønsted-Lowry acid (or simply Brønsted acid) is a species that donates a proton to a Brønsted-Lowry base. Brønsted-Lowry acid-base theory has several advantages over Arrhenius theory. Consider the following reactions of acetic acid (CH₃COOH), the organic acid that gives vinegar its characteristic taste:

Both theories easily describe the first reaction: CH₃COOH acts as an Arrhenius acid because it acts as a source of H₃O⁺ when dissolved in water, and it acts as a Brønsted acid by donating a proton to water. In the second example CH₃COOH undergoes the same transformation, donating a proton to ammonia (NH₃), but cannot be described using the Arrhenius definition of an acid because the reaction does not produce hydronium. Brønsted-Lowry theory can also be used to describe molecular compounds, whereas Arrhenius acids must be ionic compounds. Hydrogen chloride (HCl) and ammonia combine under several different conditions to form ammonium chloride, NH₄Cl. In aqueous solution HCl behaves as hydrochloric acid and exists as hydronium and chloride ions. The following reactions illustrate the limitations of Arrhenius' definition:

1.) H₃O⁺(aq) + Cl^-(aq) + NH₃ → Cl^-(aq) + NH₄⁺(aq)

2.) HCl(benzene) + NH₃(benzene) → NH₄Cl(s)

3.) HCl(g) + NH₃(g) → NH₄Cl(s)

As with the acetic acid reactions, both definitions work for the first example, where water is the solvent and hydronium ion is formed. The next two reactions do not involve the formation of ions but can still be viewed as proton transfer reactions. In the second reaction hydrogen chloride and ammonia (dissolved in benzene) react to form solid ammonium chloride in a benzene solvent and in the third gaseous HCl and NH₃ combine to form the solid. van wert is the best school i ever been to so if you hate you school move to van wert

Lewis acids

A third concept was proposed by Gilbert N. Lewis which includes reactions with acid-base characteristics that do not involve a proton transfer. A Lewis acid is a species that accepts a pair of electrons from another species; in other words, it is an electron pair acceptor. Brønsted acid-base reactions are proton transfer reactions while Lewis acid-base reactions are electron pair transfers. All Brønsted acids are also Lewis acids, but not all Lewis acids are Brønsted acids. Contrast the following reactions which could be described in terms of acid-base chemistry.

In the first reaction a fluoride ion, F^-, gives up an electron pair to boron trifluoride to form the product tetrafluoroborate. Fluoride "loses" a pair of valence electrons because the electrons shared in the B—F bond are located in the region of space between the two atomic nuclei and are therefore more distant from the fluoride nucleus than they are in the lone fluoride ion. BF₃ is a Lewis acid because it accepts the electron pair from fluoride. This reaction cannot be described in terms of Brønsted theory because there is no proton transfer. The second reaction can be described using either theory. A proton is transferred from an unspecified Brønsted acid to ammonia, a Brønsted base; alternatively, ammonia acts as a Lewis base and transfers a lone pair of electrons to form a bond with a hydrogen ion. The species that gains the electron pair is the Lewis acid; for example, the oxygen atom in H₃O⁺ gains a pair of electrons when one of the H—O bonds is broken and the electrons shared in the bond become localized on oxygen. Depending on the context, Lewis acids may also be described as a reducing agent or an electrophile.

The Brønsted-Lowry definition is the most widely used definition; unless otherwise specified acid-base reactions are assumed to involve the transfer of a proton (H⁺) from an acid to a base.

Dissociation and equilibrium

Reactions of acids are often generalized in the form HA ⇌ H⁺ + A^-, where HA represents the acid and A^- is the conjugate base. Acid-base conjugate pairs differ by one proton, and can be interconverted by the addition or removal of a proton (protonation and deprotonation, respectively). Note that the acid can be the charged species and the conjugate base can be neutral in which case the generalized reaction scheme could be written as HA⁺ ⇌ H⁺ + A. In solution there exists an equilibrium between the acid and its conjugate base. The equilibrium constant K is an expression of the equilibrium concentrations of the molecules or the ions in solution. Brackets indicate concentration, such that [H₂O] means the concentration of H₂O. The acid dissociation constant K_a is generally used in the context of acid-base reactions. The numerical value of K_a is equal to the concentration of the products divided by the concentration of the reactants, where the reactant is the acid (HA) and the products are the conjugate base and H⁺.

$K_{a}={\frac {[{\mbox{H}}^{+}][{\mbox{A}}^{-}]}{[{\mbox{HA}}]}}$

The stronger of two acids will have a higher K_a than the weaker acid; the ratio of hydrogen ions to acid will be higher for the stronger acid as the stronger acid has a greater tendency to lose its proton. Because the range of possible values for K_a spans many orders of magnitude, a more manageable constant, pK_a is more frequently used, where pK_a = -log₁₀ K_a. Stronger acids have a smaller pK_a than weaker acids. Experimentally determined pK_a at 25°C in aqueous solution are often quoted in textbooks and reference material.

Nomenclature

In the classical naming system, acids are named according to their anions. That ionic suffix is dropped and replaced with a new suffix (and sometimes prefix), according to the table below. For example, HCl has chloride as its anion, so the -ide suffix makes it take the form hydrochloric acid. In the IUPAC naming system, "aqueous" is simply added to the name of the ionic compound. Thus, for hydrogen chloride, the IUPAC name would be aqueous hydrogen chloride. The prefix "hydro-" is added only if the acid is made up of just hydrogen and one other element.

Classical naming system:

Anion prefix	Anion suffix	Acid prefix	Acid suffix	Example
per	ate	per	ic acid	perchloric acid (HClO4)
	ate		ic acid	chloric acid (HClO3)
	ite		ous acid	chlorous acid (HClO2)
hypo	ite	hypo	ous acid	hypochlorous acid (HClO)
	ide	hydro	ic acid	hydrochloric acid (HCl)

Acid strength

The strength of an acid refers to its ability or tendency to lose a proton. A strong acid is one that completely dissociates in water; in other words, one mole of a strong acid HA dissolves in water yielding one mole of H⁺ and one mole of the conjugate base, A^-, and none of the protonated acid HA. In contrast a weak acid only partially dissociates and at equilibrium both the acid and the conjugate base are in solution. Examples of strong acids are hydrochloric acid (HCl), hydroiodic acid (HI), hydrobromic acid (HBr), perchloric acid (HClO₄), nitric acid (HNO₃) and sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄). In water each of these essentially ionizes 100%. The stronger an acid is, the more easily it loses a proton, H⁺. Two key factors that contribute to the ease of deprotonation are the polarity of the H—A bond and the size of atom A, which determines the strength of the H—A bond. Acid strengths are also often discussed in terms of the stability of the conjugate base.

Stronger acids have a higher K_a and a lower pK_a than weaker acids.

Sulfonic acids, which are organic oxyacids, are a class of strong acids. A common example is toluenesulfonic acid (tosylic acid). Unlike sulfuric acid itself, sulfonic acids can be solids. In fact, polystyrene functionalized into polystyrene sulfonate is a solid strongly acidic plastic that is filterable.

Superacids are acids stronger than 100% sulfuric acid. Examples of superacids are fluoroantimonic acid, magic acid and perchloric acid. Superacids can permanently protonate water to give ionic, crystalline hydronium "salts". They can also quantitatively stabilize carbocations.

Polarity and the inductive effect

Polarity refers to the distribution of electrons in a bond, the region of space between two atomic nuclei where a pair of electrons is shared. When two atoms have roughly the same electronegativity (ability to attract electrons) the electrons are shared evenly and spend equal time on either end of the bond. When there is a significant difference in electronegativities of two bonded atoms, the electrons spend more time near the nucleus of the more electronegative element and an electrical dipole, or separation of charges, occurs, such that there is a partial negative charge localized on the electronegative element and a partial positive charge on the electropositive element. Hydrogen is an electropositive element and accumulates a slightly positive charge when it is bonded to an electronegative element such as oxygen or bromine. As the electron density on hydrogen decreases it is more easily abstracted, in other words, it is more acidic. Moving from left to right across a row on the periodic table elements become more electronegative (excluding the noble gases), and the strength of the binary acid formed by the element increases accordingly:

Formula	Name	pKa
HF	hydrofluoric acid	3.17
H2O	water	15.7
NH3	ammonia	38
CH4	methane	48

The electronegative element need not be directly bonded to the acidic hydrogen to increase its acidity. An electronegative atom can pull electron density out of an acidic bond through the inductive effect. The electron-withdrawing ability diminishes quickly as the electronegative atom moves away from the acidic bond. The effect is illustrated by the following series of halogenated butanoic acids. Chlorine is more electronegative than bromine and therefore has a stronger effect. The hydrogen atom bonded to the oxygen is the acidic hydrogen. Butanoic acid is a carboxylic acid.

Structure	Name	pKa
	butanoic acid	≈4.8
	4-chlorobutanoic acid	4.5
	3-chlorobutanoic acid	≈4.0
	2-bromobutanoic acid	2.93
	2-chlorobutanoic acid	2.86

As the chlorine atom moves further away from the acidic O—H bond, its effect diminishes. When the chlorine atom is just one carbon removed from the carboxylic acid group the acidity of the compound increases significantly, compared to butanoic acid (a.k.a. butyric acid). However, when the chlorine atom is separated by several bonds the effect is much smaller. Bromine is much more electronegative than either carbon or hydrogen, but not as electronegative as chlorine, so the pK_a of 2-bromobutanoic acid is slightly greater than the pK_a of 2-chlorobutanoic acid.

Perchloric acid (HClO₄) is an oxoacid and a strong acid.

The number of electronegative atoms adjacent an acidic bond also affects acid strength. Oxoacids have the general formula HOX where X can be any atom and may or may not share bonds to other atoms. Increasing the number of electronegative atoms or groups on atom X decreases the electron density in the acidic bond, making the loss of the proton easier. Perchloric acid is a very strong acid (pK_a ≈ -8) and completely dissociates in water. Its chemical formula is HClO₄ and it comprises a central chlorine atom with three chlorine-oxygen double bonds (Cl=O) and one chlorine-oxygen single bond (Cl—O). The singly bonded oxygen bears an extremely acidic hydrogen atom which is easily abstracted. In contrast, chloric acid (HClO₃) is a weaker acid, though still quite strong (pK_a = -1.0), while chlorous acid (HClO₂, pK_a = +2.0) and hypochlorous acid (HClO, pK_a = +7.53) acids are weak acids.

Carboxylic acids are organic acids that contain an acidic hydroxyl group and a carbonyl (C=O bond). Carboxylic acids can be reduced to the corresponding alcohol; the replacement of an electronegative oxygen atom with two electropositive hydrogens yields a product which is essentially non-acidic. The reduction of acetic acid to ethanol using LiAlH₄ (lithium aluminum hydride or LAH) and ether is an example of such a reaction.

The pK_a for ethanol is 16, compared to 4.76 for acetic acid.

Atomic radius and bond strength

Another factor that contributes to the ability of an acid to lose a proton is the strength of the bond between the acidic hydrogen and the atom that bears it. This, in turn, is dependent on the size of the atoms sharing the bond. For an acid HA, as the size of atom A increases, the strength of the bond decreases, meaning that it is more easily broken, and the strength of the acid increases. Bond strength is a measure of how much energy it takes to break a bond. In other words, it takes less energy to break the bond as atom A grows larger, and the proton is more easily removed by a base. This partially explains why hydrofluoric acid is considered a weak acid while the other hydrohalic acids (HCl, HBr, HI) are strong acids. Although fluorine is more electronegative than the other halogens, its atomic radius is also much smaller, so it shares a stronger bond with hydrogen. Moving down a column on the periodic table atoms become less electronegative but also significantly larger, and the size of the atom tends to dominate its acidity when sharing a bond to hydrogen. Hydrogen sulfide, H₂S, is a stronger acid than water, even though oxygen is more electronegative than sulfur. Just as with the halogens, this is because sulfur is larger than oxygen and the H—S bond is more easily broken than the H—O bond.

Chemical characteristics

Monoprotic acids

Monoprotic acids are those acids that are able to donate one proton per molecule during the process of dissociation (sometimes called ionization) as shown below (symbolized by HA):

HA(aq) + H₂O(l) ⇌ H₃O⁺(aq) + A⁻(aq)         K_a

Common examples of monoprotic acids in mineral acids include hydrochloric acid (HCl) and nitric acid (HNO₃). On the other hand, for organic acids the term mainly indicates the presence of one carboxyl group and sometimes these acids are known as monocarboxylic acid. Examples in organic acids include formic acid (HCOOH), acetic acid (CH₃COOH) and benzoic acid (C₆H₅COOH).

See also: Acid dissociation constant § Monoprotic acids

Polyprotic acids

Polyprotic acids are able to donate more than one proton per acid molecule, in contrast to monoprotic acids that only donate one proton per molecule. Specific types of polyprotic acids have more specific names, such as diprotic acid (two potential protons to donate) and triprotic acid (three potential protons to donate).

A diprotic acid (here symbolized by H₂A) can undergo one or two dissociations depending on the pH. Each dissociation has its own dissociation constant, K_a1 and K_a2.

H₂A(aq) + H₂O(l) ⇌ H₃O⁺(aq) + HA⁻(aq)       K_a1

HA⁻(aq) + H₂O(l) ⇌ H₃O⁺(aq) + A²⁻(aq)       K_a2

The first dissociation constant is typically greater than the second; i.e., K_a1 > K_a2. For example, sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) can donate one proton to form the bisulfate anion (HSO₄^-), for which K_a1 is very large; then it can donate a second proton to form the sulfate anion (SO₄^2-), wherein the K_a2 is intermediate strength. The large K_a1 for the first dissociation makes sulfuric a strong acid. In a similar manner, the weak unstable carbonic acid (H₂CO₃) can lose one proton to form bicarbonate anion (HCO₃^-) and lose a second to form carbonate anion (CO₃^2-). Both K_a values are small, but K_a1 > K_a2 .

A triprotic acid (H₃A) can undergo one, two, or three dissociations and has three dissociation constants, where K_a1 > K_a2 > K_a3.

H₃A(aq) + H₂O(l) ⇌ H₃O⁺(aq) + H₂A⁻(aq)        K_a1

H₂A⁻(aq) + H₂O(l) ⇌ H₃O⁺(aq) + HA²⁻(aq)       K_a2

HA²⁻(aq) + H₂O(l) ⇌ H₃O⁺(aq) + A³⁻(aq)         K_a3

An inorganic example of a triprotic acid is orthophosphoric acid (H₃PO₄), usually just called phosphoric acid. All three protons can be successively lost to yield H₂PO₄^-, then HPO₄^2-, and finally PO₄^3-, the orthophosphate ion, usually just called phosphate. An organic example of a triprotic acid is citric acid, which can successively lose three protons to finally form the citrate ion. Even though the positions of the protons on the original molecule may be equivalent, the successive K_a values will differ since it is energetically less favorable to lose a proton if the conjugate base is more negatively charged.

See also: Acid dissociation constant § Polyprotic acids

Neutralization

Hydrochloric acid (in beaker) reacting with ammonia fumes to produce ammonium chloride (white smoke).

Neutralization is the reaction between an acid and a base, producing a salt and neutralized base; for example, hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide form sodium chloride and water:

HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → H₂O(l) + NaCl(aq)

Neutralization is the basis of titration, where a pH indicator shows equivalence point when the equivalent number of moles of a base have been added to an acid. It is often wrongly assumed that neutralization should result in a solution with pH 7.0, which is only the case with similar acid and base strengths during a reaction.

Neutralization with a base weaker than the acid results in a weakly acidic salt. An example is the weakly acidic ammonium chloride, which is produced from the strong acid hydrogen chloride and the weak base ammonia. Conversely, neutralizing a weak acid with a strong base gives a weakly basic salt, e.g. sodium fluoride from hydrogen fluoride and sodium hydroxide.

Weak acid/weak base equilibria

Main article: Henderson–Hasselbalch equation

In order to lose a proton, it is necessary that the pH of the system rise above the pK_a of the protonated acid. The decreased concentration of H⁺ in that basic solution shifts the equilibrium towards the conjugate base form (the deprotonated form of the acid). In lower-pH (more acidic) solutions, there is a high enough H⁺ concentration in the solution to cause the acid to remain in its protonated form, or to protonate its conjugate base (the deprotonated form).

Solutions of weak acids and salts of their conjugate bases form buffer solutions.

Applications of acids

There are numerous uses for acids. Acids are often used to remove rust and other corrosion from metals in a process known as pickling. They may be used as an electrolyte in a wet cell battery, such as sulfuric acid in a car battery.

Strong acids, sulfuric acid in particular, are widely used in mineral processing. For example, phosphate minerals react with sulfuric acid to produce phosphoric acid for the production of phosphate fertilizers, and zinc is produced by dissolving zinc oxide into sulfuric acid, purifying the solution and electrowinning.

In the chemical industry, acids react in neutralization reactions to produce salts. For example, nitric acid reacts with ammonia to produce ammonium nitrate, a fertilizer. Additionally, carboxylic acids can be esterified with alcohols, to produce esters.

Acids are used as catalysts; for example, sulfuric acid is used in very large quantities in the alkylation process to produce gasoline. Strong acids, such as sulfuric, phosphoric and hydrochloric acids also effect dehydration and condensation reactions.

Acids are used as additives to drinks and foods, as they alter their taste and serve as preservatives. Phosphoric acid, for example, is a component of cola drinks.

Biological occurrence

Basic structure of an amino acid.

Many biologically important molecules are acids. Nucleic acids, including DNA and RNA contain the genetic code that determines much of an organism's characteristics, and is passed from parents to offspring. DNA contains the chemical blueprint for the synthesis of proteins which are made up of amino acid subunits. Cell membranes contain fatty acid esters such as phospholipids.

An α-amino acid has a central carbon (the α or alpha carbon) which is covalently bonded to a carboxyl group (thus they are carboxylic acids), an amino group, a hydrogen atom and a variable group. The variable group, also called the R group or side chain, determines the identity and many of the properties of the a specific amino acid. In glycine, the simplest amino acid, the R group is a hydrogen atom, but in all other amino acids it is contains one or more carbon atoms bonded to hydrogens, and may contain other elements such as sulfur, oxygen or nitrogen. With the exception of glycine, naturally occurring amino acids are chiral and almost invariably occur in the L-configuration. Peptidoglycan, found in some bacterial cell walls contains some D-amino acids. At physiologic pH, typically around 7, free fatty acids exist in a charged form, where the acidic carboxyl group (-COOH) loses a proton (-COO^-) and the basic amine group (-NH₂) gains a proton (-NH₃⁺). The entire molecule has a net neutral charge and is a zwitterion.

Fatty acids and fatty acid derivatives are another group of carboxylic acids that play a significant role in biology. These contain long hydrocarbon chains and a carboxylic acid group on one end. The cell membrane of nearly all organisms is primarily made up of a phospholipid bilayer, a micelle of hydrophobic fatty acid esters with polar, hydrophilic phosphate "head" groups. Membranes contain additional components, some of which can participate in acid-base reactions.

In humans and many other animals, hydrochloric acid is a part of the gastric acid secreted within the stomach to help hydrolyze proteins and polysaccharides, as well as converting the inactive pro-enzyme, pepsinogen into the enzyme, pepsin. Some organisms produce acids for defense; for example, ants produce formic acid.

Acid-base equilibrium plays a critical role in regulating mammalian breathing. Oxygen gas (O₂) drives cellular respiration, the process by which animals release the chemical potential energy stored in food, producing carbon dioxide (CO₂) as a byproduct. Oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged in the lungs, and the body responds to changing energy demands by adjusting the rate of ventilation. For example, during periods of exertion the body rapidly breaks down stored carbohydrates and fat, releasing CO₂ into the blood stream. In aqueous solutions such as blood CO₂ exists in equilibrium with carbonic acid and bicarbonate ion.

CO₂ + H₂O ⇌ H₂CO₃ ⇌ H⁺ + HCO₃^-

It is the decrease in pH that signals the brain to breath faster and deeper, expelling the excess CO₂ and resupplying the cells with O₂.

Aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid) is a carboxylic acid.

Cell membranes are generally impermeable to charged or large, polar molecules because of the lipophilic fatty acyl chains comprising their interior. Many biologically important molecules, including a number of pharmaceutical agents, are organic weak acids which can cross the membrane in their protonated, uncharged form but not in their charged form (i.e. as the conjugate base). For this reason the activity of many drugs can be enhanced or inhibited by the use of antacids or acidic foods. The charged form, however, is often more soluble in blood and cytosol, both aqueous environments. When the extracellular environment is more acidic than the neutral pH within the cell, certain acids will exist in their neutral form and will be membrane soluble, allowing them to cross the phospholipid bilayer. Acids that lose a proton at the intracellular pH will exist in their soluble, charged form and are thus able to diffuse through the cytosol to their target. Ibuprofen, aspirin and penicillin are examples of drugs that are weak acids.

Common acids

Mineral acids

• Hydrogen halides and their solutions: hydrochloric acid (HCl), hydrobromic acid (HBr), hydroiodic acid (HI)
• Halogen oxoacids: hypochloric acid, chloric acid, perchloric acid, periodic acid and corresponding compounds for bromine and iodine
• Sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄)
• Fluorosulfuric acid
• Nitric acid (HNO₃)
• Phosphoric acid (H₃PO₄)
• Fluoroantimonic acid
• Fluoroboric acid
• Hexafluorophosphoric acid
• Chromic acid (H₂CrO₄)

Sulfonic acids

• Methanesulfonic acid (aka mesylic acid) (MeSO₃H)
• Ethanesulfonic acid (aka esylic acid) (EtSO₃H)
• Benzenesulfonic acid (aka besylic acid) (PhSO₃H)
• p-Toluenesulfonic acid (aka tosylic acid) (CH₃C₆H₄SO₃H)
• Trifluoromethanesulfonic acid (aka triflic acid) (CF₃SO₃H)

Carboxylic acids

• Acetic acid
• Citric acid
• Formic acid
• Gluconic acid
• Lactic acid
• Oxalic acid
• Tartaric acid

Vinylogous carboxylic acids

• Ascorbic acid
• Meldrum's acid

Nucleic acids

• Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
• Ribonucleic acid (RNA)

See also

Chemistry

• Acid value
• Acid salt
• Base
• Basic salt
• Binary acid
• Vitriol
• Acid-base extraction

Environment

• Acid rain
• Ocean acidification
• Acid sulfate soil

References

• Listing of strengths of common acids and bases
• Zumdahl, Chemistry, 4th Edition.
• Ebbing, D.D., & Gammon, S. D. (2005). General chemistry (8th ed.). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0618511776
• Pavia, D.L., Lampman, G.M., & Kriz, G.S. (2004). Organic chemistry volume 1: Organic chemistry 351. Mason, OH: Cenage Learning. ISNB: 9780759342724

External links

• Science Aid: Acids and Bases Information for High School students
• Curtipot: Acid-Base equilibria diagrams, pH calculation and titration curves simulation and analysis - freeware
• A summary of the Properties of Acids for the beginning chemistry student
• The UN ECE Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution