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== Media influence ==
== Media influence ==


Modern media contains more sexual messages than was true in the past and the effects on teen sexual behavior remain relatively unknown.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Brown JD |title=Mass media influences on sexuality |journal=J Sex Res |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=42–5 |year=2002 |month=February |pmid=12476255 |doi=10.1080/00224490209552118 }}</ref> Only 9% of the sex scenes on 1,300 of cable network programming discusses and deals with the negative consequences of sexual behavior.<ref>Pawlowski,Cheryl.,PH d. Glued to the Tube., Sourcebooks, INC., Naperville,Il.2000.</ref> The Internet and the anonymity therein allows adolescents real concerns relating to false information on health issues, sexuality, and sexual violence in the world of intimate sexual relationships.<ref>Subrahmanyam, Kaveri., Greenfield, Patricia,M., Tynes, Brendesha. The Internet Influences Teen Sexual Attitudes. Teen Sexuality:Opposing Viewpoints 2006.</ref>
Modern media contains more sexual messages than was true in the past and the effects on teen sexual behavior remain relatively unknown.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Brown JD |title=Mass media influences on sexuality |journal=J Sex Res |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=42–5 |year=2002 |month=February |pmid=12476255 |doi=10.1080/00224490209552118 }}</ref> Only 9% of the sex scenes on 1,300 of cable network programming discusses and deals with the negative consequences of sexual behavior.<ref>Pawlowski,Cheryl.,PH d. Glued to the Tube., Sourcebooks, INC., Naperville,Il.2000.</ref> The Internet may further provide adolescents with poor information on health issues, sexuality, and sexual violence.<ref>Subrahmanyam, Kaveri., Greenfield, Patricia,M., Tynes, Brendesha. The Internet Influences Teen Sexual Attitudes. Teen Sexuality:Opposing Viewpoints 2006.</ref>


===In Britain===
===In Britain===

Revision as of 13:14, 27 February 2012

Adolescent sexuality refers to sexual feelings, behavior and development in adolescents and is a stage of human sexuality. Sexuality is often a vital aspect of teenagers' lives.[1] The sexual behavior of adolescents is, in most cases, influenced by their culture's norms and mores, their sexual orientation, and the issues of social control such as age of consent laws.

In humans, mature sexual desire usually begins to appear with the onset of puberty. Sexual expression can take the form of masturbation or sex with a partner. Sexual interests among adolescents, as among adults, can vary greatly. Sexual activity in general is associated with various risks including unwanted pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases including HIV/AIDS. The risks are elevated for young adolescents because their brains are not neurally mature; several brain regions in the frontal lobe of the cerebral cortex and in the hypothalamus important for self control, delayed gratification, and risk analysis and appreciation are not fully mature. The creases in the brain continue to become more complex until the late teens, and the brain is not fully mature until age 25.[2] Partially because of this, young adolescents are generally less equipped than adults to make sound decisions and anticipate consequences of sexual behavior.[3]

Adolescent sexual behavior

Prevalence of sexually-experienced 15-year-olds

Prevalence of sexually-experienced 15-year-olds
Country Boys (%) Girls (%)
Austria 21.7 17.9
Canada 24.1 23.9
Croatia 21.9 8.3
England 34.9 39.9
Estonia 18.8 14.1
Finland 23.1 32.7
Belgium 24.6 23
France 25.1 17.7
Greece 32.5 9.5
Hungary 25 16.3
Israel 31 8.2
Latvia 19.2 12.4
Lithuania 24.4 9.2
Macedonia 34.2 2.7
Netherlands 23.3 20.5
Poland 20.5 9.3
Portugal 29.2 19.1
Scotland 32.1 34.1
Slovenia 45.2 23.1
Spain 17.2 13.9
Sweden 24.6 29.9
Switzerland 24.1 20.3
Ukraine 47.1 24
Wales 27.3 38.5

In 2002, an international survey was conducted, with the aim of studying the sexual behavior of teenagers. 33,943 students aged 15, from 24 countries, completed a self-administered, anonymous, classroom survey, consisting of a standard questionnaire, developed by the HBSC (Health Behaviour in School- aged Children) international research network. The survey revealed that the majority of the students were still virgins (they had no experience of sexual intercourse), and, among those who were sexually active, the majority (82%) used contraception.[4]

In the United States

Main article: Adolescent sexuality in the United States

Changes in the expression of adolescent sexuality in the United States find their origins in the sexual revolution and was the focus of the "culture wars". The U.S. federal government policy under George W. Bush emphasized sexual abstinence or chastity, particularly in sex education with a focus on abstinence-only sex education rather than the harm reduction approach of the safe sex focus. It extended this approach to foreign policy, using the threat to withdraw foreign aid to press NGO's into ending condom education and distribution in third-world countries. There is ongoing debate between those advocating comprehensive, medically accurate sex education and those who regard only abstinence-based education as accord "the values held by most Americans".[5]

According to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, in 2007 47.8% of U.S. high school students reported having ever had sexual intercourse. This number has shown a downward trend since 1991, when the figure was 54.1%.[6] According to a survey commissioned by NBC News and People magazine, 87% of 13- to 16-year-olds report having never had sexual intercourse, and 73% report having not been sexually intimate at all. Three quarters of these respondents say they have not because they feel they are too young, and just as many say they have made a conscious decision not to.[7]

The same survey found while only 27% of 13- to 16-year-olds had been involved in intimate or sexual activity, 8% had had a casual sexual relationship,[7] which has been described by one journalist as a "profound shift in the culture of high school dating and sex".[8] In his book, Why Gender Matters, researcher Leonard Sax states that teenage sexual encounters are increasingly taking place outside the context of romantic relationships, in purely sexual "hookups".[9]

In 2002, the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health reported a "dramatic trend toward the early initiation of sex".[10] According to the American Academy of Pediatrics "early sexual intercourse among American adolescents represents a major public health problem. Although early sexual activity may be caused by a variety of factors, the media are believed to play a significant role. U.S. teens rank the media second only to school sex education programs as a leading source of information about sex".[11]

The U.S. teen pregnancy rate is higher than in many other developed countries.[12] After declining steadily since 1991, the teen pregnancy rate rose 3% in 2006, to 41.9 births per 1,000. This followed a 14-year downward trend in which the teen birth rate fell by 34% from its 1991 peak of 61.8 births per 1,000.[13]

Public health officials express concerns that sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and risky behaviors that include "anything but intercourse" are "rampant" among teens.[5] Of the 18.9 million new cases of STIs each year, 9.1 million (48%) occur among 15- to 24-year-olds, even though this age group represents only one-quarter of the sexually active population.[12] According to a 2008 study by the CDC, an estimated 1 in 4 teen girls has at least one STI at any given time.[14]

Increasing rates of oral sex among teens have been reported. However a study released in 2008 by the Guttmacher Institute found that, while oral sex is slightly more common than vaginal sex among teens, the prevalence of oral sex among teen opposite-sex partners has held steady for the last decade.[15] According to the study, slightly more than half (55%) of 15– to 19-year-olds have engaged in heterosexual oral sex, 50% have engaged in vaginal sex and 11% have had anal sex.

Among sexually active 15- to 19-year-olds, 83% of females and 91% of males reported using at least one method of birth control during last intercourse.[16] The most common methods of contraception are condoms and birth control pills. In 2007, 61.5% of high school students reported using a condom the last time they had sexual intercourse, up from 46% in 1991.[6]

The CDC also tracks the percentage of students who say they used drugs or alcohol before sex. While this risk behavior increased between 1991 and 2001, the trend has been declining since then.[6] In 2007, 22.5% of high school students reported this risk behavior, down from 25.6% in 2001.[6]

Most teenagers (70%) reported that they received some or a lot of information about sex and sexual relationships from their parents. Other sources of information included friends at 53%, school, also at 53%, TV and movies at 51% and magazines at 34%. School and magazines were said to be used as sources of information more by girls than by boys, and sexually active teens were more likely to cite their friends and partners as information sources.[7]

In the U.S., 431 schools in fifty districts (0.35% of all districts and 2.2% of all high schools nationwide) have established school-based condom availability programs. These programs involve condom distribution, condom-use education and information, peer support, sex and STDs education within the curriculum, and involvement of parents, staff, partnerships, and health care providers. Studies have shown that condom availability programs in high schools may lower the risk of HIV, STDs, and teen pregnancy. In all schools, condom use increased while sexual behaviour remained the same among high school students following the implementation of condom availability programs.[17][18][19][20]

Media influence

Modern media contains more sexual messages than was true in the past and the effects on teen sexual behavior remain relatively unknown.[21] Only 9% of the sex scenes on 1,300 of cable network programming discusses and deals with the negative consequences of sexual behavior.[22] The Internet may further provide adolescents with poor information on health issues, sexuality, and sexual violence.[23]

In Britain

See also: Teenage pregnancy and sexual health in the United Kingdom

In 2006, a survey conducted by The Observer showed that most adolescents in Britain were waiting longer to have sexual intercourse than they were only a few years earlier. In 2002, 32% of teens were having sex before the age of 16; in 2006 it was only 20%. The average age a teen lost his/her virginity was 17.13 years in 2002; in 2006, it was 17.44 years on average for girls and 18.06 for boys. The most notable drop among teens who reported having sex was 14- and 15-year-olds.[24]

A 2008 survey conducted by YouGov for Channel 4 showed that 40% of all 14- to 17-year-olds are sexually active, 74% of sexually active 14- to 17-year-olds have had a sexual experience under the age of consent, and 6% of teens would wait until marriage before having sex.[25]

Of Western European countries, Britain has been stated to have a teenage pregnancy rate as high as America's, and sexually transmitted infections in Britain are on the increase.[26] One in nine sexually active teens has chlamydia and 790,000 teens have sexually transmitted infections. In 2006 The Independent newspaper reported that the biggest rise in sexually transmitted infections was in syphilis, which rose by more than 20 per cent, while increases were also seen in cases of genital warts and herpes.[27]

In Canada

One group of Canadian researchers found a relationship between self esteem and sexual activity. They found that students, especially girls, who were verbally abused by teachers or rejected by their peers were more likely than other students to have sex by the end of the Grade 7. The researchers speculate that low self esteem increases the likelihood of sexual activity: "low self-esteem seemed to explain the link between peer rejection and early sex. Girls with a poor self-image may see sex as a way to become 'popular', according to the researchers".[28]

In India

In India there is growing evidence that adolescents are becoming more sexually active outside of marriage. It is feared that this will lead to an increase in spread of HIV/AIDS among adolescents, increase the number of unwanted pregnancies and abortions, and give rise to conflict between contemporary social values. Adolescents have relatively poor access to health care and education. With cultural norms opposing extramarital sexual behavior "these implications may acquire threatening dimensions for the society and the nation".[29]

Motivation and frequency

Sexual relationships outside marriage are not uncommon among teenage boys and girls in India. By far, the best predictor of whether or not a girl would be having sex is if her friends were engaging in the same activities. For those girls whose friends were having a physical relationship with a boy, 84.4% were engaging in the same behavior. Only 24.8% of girls whose friends were not having a physical relationship had one themselves. In urban areas, 25.2% of girls have had intercourse and in rural areas 20.9% have. Better indicators of whether or not girls were having sex were their employment and school status. Girls who were not attending school were 14.2% (17.4% v. 31.6%) more likely and girls who were employed were 14.4%(36.0% v. 21.6%) more likely to be having sex.[29]

In the Indian sociocultural milieu girls have less access to parental love, schools, opportunities for self development and freedom of movement than boys do. It has been argued that they may rebel against this lack of access or seek out affection through physical relationships with boys. While the data reflects trends to support this theory, it is inconclusive.[29] The freedom to communicate with adolescent boys was restricted for girls regardless of whether they lived in an urban or rural setting, and regardless of whether they went to school or not. More urban girls than rural girls discussed sex with their friends. Those who did not may have felt "the subject of sexuality in itself is considered an 'adult issue' and a taboo or it may be that some respondents were wary of revealing such personal information."[30]

Contraceptive use

Among Indian girls, "misconceptions about sex, sexuality and sexual health were large. However, adolescents having sex relationships were somewhat better informed about the sources of spread of STDs and HIV/AIDS."[29] While 40.0% of sexually active girls were aware that condoms could help prevent the spread of HIV/AIDS and reduce the likelihood of pregnancy, only 10.5% used a condom during the last time they had intercourse.[29]

Teenage pregnancy

Main article: Teenage pregnancy

Adolescent girls become fertile following the menarche (first menstrual period), which occurs in the United States at an average age of 12.5, although it can vary widely between different girls. After menarche, sexual intercourse (especially without contraception) can lead to pregnancy. The pregnant teenager may then miscarry, have an abortion, or carry the child to full term.

Pregnant teenagers face many of the same obstetrics issues as women in their 20s and 30s. However, there are additional medical concerns for younger mothers, particularly those under 15 and those living in developing countries; for example, obstetric fistula is a particular issue for very young mothers in poorer regions.[31] For mothers between 15 and 19, age in itself is not a risk factor, but additional risks may be associated with socioeconomic factors; for example pregnant teenagers are less likely than women over 20 to receive early prenatal care.[32]

Worldwide, rates of teenage births range widely. For example, sub-Saharan Africa has a high proportion of teenage mothers whereas industrialized Asian countries such as South Korea and Japan have very low rates.[33] Teenage pregnancy in developed countries is usually outside of marriage, and carries a social stigma; teenage mothers and their children in developed countries show lower educational levels, higher rates of poverty, and other poorer "life outcomes" compared with older mothers and their children.[34] In the developing world, teenage pregnancy is usually within marriage and does not carry such a stigma.[35]

Legal aspects of adolescent sexual activity

Age of Consent - Global
Main articles: Age of consent and Marriageable age
See also: Teen marriage

Sexual conduct between adults and adolescents younger than the local age of consent is illegal, and in some Islamic countries any kind of sexual activity outside marriage is prohibited. In many jurisdictions, sexual intercourse between adolescents with a close age difference is not prohibited. Around the world, the average age-of-consent is 16,[36] but this varies from being age 13 in Spain, age 16 across Canada, and age 16-18 in the United States. In some jurisdictions, the age-of-consent for homosexual acts may be different from that for heterosexual acts. The age-of-consent in a particular jurisdiction is typically the same as the age of majority or several years younger. The age at which one can legally marry is also sometimes different from the legal age-of-consent.

Sexual relations with a person under the age-of-consent are generally a criminal offense in the jurisdiction in which the crime was committed, with punishments ranging from token fines to life imprisonment. Many different terms exist for the charges laid and include statutory rape, illegal carnal knowledge, or corruption of a minor. In some cases, sexual activity with someone above the legal age-of-consent but beneath the age of majority can be punishable under laws against contributing to the delinquency of a minor.[citation needed]

Sex education

Sex education, also called "Sexuality Education" or informally "Sex Ed" is a broad term used to describe education about human sexual anatomy, sexual reproduction, sexual intercourse, human sexual behavior, and other aspects of sexuality, such as body image, sexual orientation, dating, and relationships. Common avenues for sex education are parents, caregivers, friends, school programs, religious groups, popular media, and public health campaigns.

Sexual education in different countries varies. For example, in France sex education has been part of school curricula since 1973. Schools are expected to provide 30 to 40 hours of sex education, and pass out condoms to students in grades eight and nine. In January, 2000, the French government launched an information campaign on contraception with TV and radio spots and the distribution of five million leaflets on contraception to high school students.[37]

In Germany, sex education has been part of school curricula since 1970. Since 1992 sex education is by law a governmental duty.[38] A survey by the World Health Organization concerning the habits of European teenagers in 2006 revealed that German teenagers care about contraception. The birth rate among 15 to 19-year-olds is 11.7 per 1000 population, compared to 2.9 per 1000 population in Korea, and 55.6 per 1000 population in US.[39]

According to SIECUS, the Sexuality Information and Education Council of the United States, in most families, parents are the primary sex educators of their adolescents. They found 93% of adults they surveyed support sexuality education in high school and 84% support it in junior high school.[40] In fact, 88% of parents of junior high school students and 80% of parents of high school students believe that sex education in school makes it easier for them to talk to their adolescents about sex.[41] Also, 92% of adolescents report that they want both to talk to their parents about sex and to have comprehensive in-school sex education.[citation needed]

Almost all U.S. students receive some form of sex education at least once between grades 7 and 12; many schools begin addressing some topics as early as grade 5 or 6.[42] However, what students learn varies widely, because curriculum decisions are quite decentralized.[43] Two main forms of sex education are taught in American schools: comprehensive and abstinence-only. A 2002 study conducted by the Kaiser Family Foundation found that 58% of secondary school principals describe their sex education curriculum as comprehensive, while 34% said their school's main message was abstinence-only.[43] The difference between these two approaches, and their impact on teen behavior, remains a controversial subject in the U.S.[44][45] Some studies have shown abstinence-only programs to have no positive effects.[46] Other studies have shown specific programs to result in more than 2/3 of students maintaining that they will remain abstinent until marriage months after completing such a program;[47] such virginity pledges, however, are statistically ineffective,[48][49] and over 95% of Americans do, in fact, have sex before marriage.[50]

In Asia the state of sex education programs are at various stages of development. Indonesia, Mongolia, South Korea and Sri Lanka have a systematic policy framework for teaching about sex within schools. Malaysia, the Philippines and Thailand have assessed adolescent reproductive health needs with a view to developing adolescent-specific training, messages and materials. India has programs that specifically aim at school children at the age group of nine to sixteen years. These are included as subjects in the curriculum and generally involved open and frank interaction with the teachers. Bangladesh, Nepal and Pakistan have no coordinated sex education programs.[51]

See also

References

  1. ^ Ponton, Lynn (2000). The Sex Lives of Teenagers. New York: Dutton. p. 2. ISBN 0-452-28260-8.
  2. ^ Casey, B. J., Getz, S., & Galvan, A. (2008). The adolescent brain. Developmental Review, 28(1), 62-77.
  3. ^ John R. Chapman (2000). "Adolescent sex and mass media: a developmental approach". Adolescence. Winter (140): 799–811. PMID 11214217.
  4. ^ Godeau E, Nic Gabhainn S, Vignes C, Ross J, Boyce W, Todd J (2008). "Contraceptive use by 15-year-old students at their last sexual intercourse: results from 24 countries". Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 162 (1): 66–73. doi:10.1001/archpediatrics.2007.8. PMID 18180415. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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  6. ^ a b c d "Trends in the Prevalence of Sexual Behaviors" (PDF). The National Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS) 1991-2007. US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2007. Retrieved 2008-07-02. [dead link]
  7. ^ a b c Katie Couric (2005). "Nearly 3 in 10 young teens 'sexually active'". MSNBC. Retrieved 2007-01-21.
  8. ^ Alexandra Hall. "The Mating Habits of the Suburban High School Teenager". Boston Magazine (May 2003).
  9. ^ Sax, M.D., Ph.D, Leonard (2005). Why Gender Matters. Doubleday. p. 132. ISBN 0-385-51073-X.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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  11. ^ American Academy of Pediatrics. Committee on Public Education, American Academy of Child and Adolescent psychiatry, American Psychological Association (2001). "Sexuality, contraception, and the media. Committee on Public Education". Pediatrics. 107 (1): 191–4. doi:10.1542/peds.107.1.191. PMID 11134460. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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  13. ^ "Teen Birth Rate Rises for First Time in 15 Years" (Press release). National Center for Health Statistics, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2007-12-05. Retrieved 2008-07-02.
  14. ^ "Nationally Representative CDC Study Finds 1 in 4 Teenage Girls Has a Sexually Transmitted Disease" (Press release). US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2008-03-11. Retrieved 2008-07-03.
  15. ^ Duberstein Lindberg, Laura. "Non-coital sexual activities among adolescents" (PDF). Guttmacher Institute. Retrieved 2008-06-30. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  16. ^ "Sexual Health Statistics for Teenagers and Young Adults in the United States" (PDF). Kaiser Family Foundation. 2006. Retrieved 2008-07-02. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  17. ^ Furstenberg FF, Geitz LM, Teitler JO, Weiss CC (1997). "Does condom availability make a difference? An evaluation of Philadelphia's health resource centers". Fam Plann Perspect. 29 (3): 123–7. doi:10.2307/2953334. PMID 9179581.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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  20. ^ Blake SM, Ledsky R, Goodenow C, Sawyer R, Lohrmann D, Windsor R (2003). "Condom availability programs in Massachusetts high schools: relationships with condom use and sexual behavior". Am J Public Health. 93 (6): 955–62. doi:10.2105/AJPH.93.6.955. PMC 1447877. PMID 12773362. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  21. ^ Brown JD (2002). "Mass media influences on sexuality". J Sex Res. 39 (1): 42–5. doi:10.1080/00224490209552118. PMID 12476255. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  22. ^ Pawlowski,Cheryl.,PH d. Glued to the Tube., Sourcebooks, INC., Naperville,Il.2000.
  23. ^ Subrahmanyam, Kaveri., Greenfield, Patricia,M., Tynes, Brendesha. The Internet Influences Teen Sexual Attitudes. Teen Sexuality:Opposing Viewpoints 2006.
  24. ^ Denis Campbell (January 22, 2006). "No sex please until we're at least 17 years old, we're British". The Observer.
  25. ^ "Teen Sex Survey". Channel 4. 2008. Retrieved 2008-09-11.
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  27. ^ Jonathan Thompson (November 12, 2006). "New safe sex ads target teens 'on the pull'". The Independent.
  28. ^ Peer rejection tied to early sex in pre-teens
  29. ^ a b c d e R.S.Goya, Indian Institute of Health Management Research, Jaipur, India. "Socio-psychological Constructs of Premarital Sex Behavior among Adolescent Girls in India" (pdf). Abstract. Princeton University. Retrieved 2007-01-21.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Cite error: The named reference "india girls" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  30. ^ Dhoundiyal Manju & Venkatesh Renuka (2006). "Knowledge regarding human sexuality among adolescent girls". The Indian Journal of Pediatrics. 73 (8): 743. doi:10.1007/BF02898460. PMID 16936373.
  31. ^ Pregnancy and childbirth are leading causes of death in teenage girls in developing countries
  32. ^ Makinson C (1985). "The health consequences of teenage fertility". Fam Plann Perspect. 17 (3): 132–9. doi:10.2307/2135024. PMID 2431924.
  33. ^ Indicator: Births per 1000 women (15-19 ys) – 2002 UNFPA, State of World Population 2003, Retrieved 22 January 2007.
  34. ^ The National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy. (2002). Template:PDFlink. Retrieved May 27, 2006.
  35. ^ Population Council (January 2006). "Unexplored Elements of Adolescence in the Developing World". Population Briefs. 12 (1).
  36. ^ http://www.avert.org/age-of-consent.htm
  37. ^ Britain: Sex Education Under Fire UNESCO Courier
  38. ^ Sexualaufklärung in Europa (German)
  39. ^ http://www.unicef-irc.org/publications/pdf/repcard3e.pdf
  40. ^ SIECUS Report of Public Support of Sexuality Education(1999)SIECUS Report Online
  41. ^ Sex Education in America.(Washington, DC: National Public Radio, Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation, and Kennedy School of Government, 2004), p. 5.
  42. ^ Landry DJ, Singh S, Darroch JE (2000). "Sexuality education in fifth and sixth grades in U.S. public schools, 1999". Fam Plann Perspect. 32 (5): 212–9. doi:10.2307/2648174. PMID 11030258.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  43. ^ a b "Sex Education in the U.S.: Policy and Politics" (PDF). Issue Update. Kaiser Family Foundation. 2002. Retrieved 2007-05-23. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  44. ^ Hauser, Debra (2004). "Five Years of Abstinence-Only-Until-Marriage Education: Assessing the Impact". Advocates for Youth. Retrieved 2007-05-23.
  45. ^ "Mathematica Findings Too Narrow" (Press release). National Abstinence Education Association. 2007-04-13. Retrieved 2007-05-25.
  46. ^ Report: Abstinence Not Curbing Teen Sex
  47. ^ Why Know Says They Are Effective In Increasing Teen Abstinence
  48. ^ Bearman PS, Brückner H (2001). "Promising the future: virginity pledges and first intercourse". American Journal of Sociology. 106: 859–912.
  49. ^ Brückner H, Bearman P (2005). "After the promise: the STD consequences of adolescent virginity pledges". J Adolesc Health. 36 (4): 271–8. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2005.01.005. PMID 15780782. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  50. ^ Finer LB (2007). "Trends in premarital sex in the United States, 1954–2003". Public Health Rep. 122 (1): 73–8. PMC 1802108. PMID 17236611.
  51. ^ Adolescents In Changing Times: Issues And Perspectives For Adolescent Reproductive Health In The ESCAP Region United Nations Social and Economic Commission for Asia and the Pacific

External links

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