Jump to content

Azawad: Difference between revisions

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Browse history interactively
← Previous editNext edit →
Content deleted Content added
VisualWikitext
mNo edit summary
The Azawad state is not a Malian region
Line 64: Line 64:
[[File:Azawad in context.JPG|thumb|Map of Azawad, as claimed by the MNLA: regions with [[Tuareg]] majority marked with dark grey dots, the west is mainly inhabited by [[Moors]], the south by Sub-Saharan peoples]]
[[File:Azawad in context.JPG|thumb|Map of Azawad, as claimed by the MNLA: regions with [[Tuareg]] majority marked with dark grey dots, the west is mainly inhabited by [[Moors]], the south by Sub-Saharan peoples]]


'''Azawad''', also known as the '''Independent State of Azawad'''<ref name=DOI/> ([[Tuareg languages|Tuareg]]: {{lang|ber|ⴰⵣⴰⵓⴰⴷ}}; {{lang-ar|دولة أزواد المستقلة}} ''{{transl|ar|Dawlat Azawād al-Mustaqillah}}''; {{lang-fr|État indépendant de l’Azawad}}<ref name=DOI/>), is a region of northern [[Mali]] as well as an [[diplomatic recognition|unrecognised]] state that was [[Azawad Declaration of Independence|unilaterally declared]] by the [[National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad]] in 2012 after [[Tuareg rebellion (2012)|a conflict]] which drove the [[military of Mali|Malian Army]] from the territory. Azawad comprises the [[Regions of Mali|Malian regions]] of [[Tombouctou Region|Timbuktu]], [[Kidal Region|Kidal]], [[Gao Region|Gao]], as well as a part of [[Mopti region]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-17576725 |title=Mali Tuareg rebels control Timbuktu as troops flee |author= |date=1 April 2012 |work= |publisher=BBC News |accessdate=3 April 2012}}</ref> It borders Mali to the southwest, [[Burkina Faso]] to the south, [[Mauritania]] to the west and northwest, [[Algeria]] to the north, and [[Niger]] to the east and southeast. It straddles a portion of the [[Sahara]] and the [[Sahel|Sahelian zone]]. [[Gao]] is its largest city and the MNLA's temporary capital.<ref name="gao">{{cite news|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2012/04/20124644412359539.html|title=Tuaregs claim 'independence' from Mali|agency=Al Jazeera|date=6 April 2012|accessdate=6 April 2012}}</ref>
'''Azawad''', also known as the '''Independent State of Azawad'''<ref name=DOI/> ([[Tuareg languages|Tuareg]]: {{lang|ber|ⴰⵣⴰⵓⴰⴷ}}; {{lang-ar|دولة أزواد المستقلة}} ''{{transl|ar|Dawlat Azawād al-Mustaqillah}}''; {{lang-fr|État indépendant de l’Azawad}}<ref name=DOI/>), is an [[diplomatic recognition|unrecognised]] state that was [[Azawad Declaration of Independence|unilaterally declared]] by the [[National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad]] in 2012 after [[Tuareg rebellion (2012)|a conflict]] which drove the [[military of Mali|Malian Army]] from the territory. Azawad comprises the [[Regions of Mali|Malian regions]] of [[Tombouctou Region|Timbuktu]], [[Kidal Region|Kidal]], [[Gao Region|Gao]], as well as a part of [[Mopti region]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-17576725 |title=Mali Tuareg rebels control Timbuktu as troops flee |author= |date=1 April 2012 |work= |publisher=BBC News |accessdate=3 April 2012}}</ref> It borders Mali to the southwest, [[Burkina Faso]] to the south, [[Mauritania]] to the west and northwest, [[Algeria]] to the north, and [[Niger]] to the east and southeast. It straddles a portion of the [[Sahara]] and the [[Sahel|Sahelian zone]]. [[Gao]] is its largest city and the MNLA's temporary capital.<ref name="gao">{{cite news|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2012/04/20124644412359539.html|title=Tuaregs claim 'independence' from Mali|agency=Al Jazeera|date=6 April 2012|accessdate=6 April 2012}}</ref>


On 6 April 2012, in a statement posted to its website, the MNLA declared "irrevocably" the independence of Azawad from Mali. In Gao on the same day, [[Bilal Ag Acherif]], the secretary-general of the movement, signed the [[Azawadi Declaration of Independence]], which also declared the MNLA as the interim administrators of Azawad until a "national authority" is formed.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/rest-of-world/Mali-rebels-declare-independence-in-north/articleshow/12556649.cms|agency=Times of India|date=6 April 2012|title=Mali rebels declare independence in north|accessdate=6 April 2012}}</ref> The proclamation has yet to be recognised by a foreign entity,<ref name="udi"/> and even the MNLA's claim to have ''de facto'' control of the Azawad is disputed by both the government of Mali and the MNLA's former co-combatant, the Islamist group [[Ansar Dine]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://thelede.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/04/06/rift-appears-between-islamists-and-main-rebel-group-in-mali/ |title=Rift Appears Between Islamists and Main Rebel Group in Mali |author=J. David Goodman |date=6 April 2012 |work=The New York Times |publisher= |accessdate=7 April 2012}}</ref>
On 6 April 2012, in a statement posted to its website, the MNLA declared "irrevocably" the independence of Azawad from Mali. In Gao on the same day, [[Bilal Ag Acherif]], the secretary-general of the movement, signed the [[Azawadi Declaration of Independence]], which also declared the MNLA as the interim administrators of Azawad until a "national authority" is formed.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/rest-of-world/Mali-rebels-declare-independence-in-north/articleshow/12556649.cms|agency=Times of India|date=6 April 2012|title=Mali rebels declare independence in north|accessdate=6 April 2012}}</ref> The proclamation has yet to be recognised by a foreign entity,<ref name="udi"/> and even the MNLA's claim to have ''de facto'' control of the Azawad is disputed by both the government of Mali and the MNLA's former co-combatant, the Islamist group [[Ansar Dine]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://thelede.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/04/06/rift-appears-between-islamists-and-main-rebel-group-in-mali/ |title=Rift Appears Between Islamists and Main Rebel Group in Mali |author=J. David Goodman |date=6 April 2012 |work=The New York Times |publisher= |accessdate=7 April 2012}}</ref>

Revision as of 09:06, 9 April 2012

For the geographical region spanning several Sahelian countries, see Azawagh.
Independent State of Azawad
ⴰⵣⴰⵓⴰⴷ
دولة أزواد المستقلة
État indépendant de l'Azawad
Horizontal green, red, and black stripes with a yellow triangle at hoist.
Projection of Azawad in green and southern Mali in light green
Azawad, as claimed by the MNLA, in green, with southern Mali in light green
CapitalGao (interim)
Timbuktu (proclaimed)[1]
Largest cityGao
Spoken languagesTuareg, Arabic, Songhay, Fula, Bambara, French[citation needed]
Demonym(s)Azawadi
GovernmentExecutive Committee of the MNLA[citation needed]
• President
Mahmoud Ag Aghaly
Independence 
From Mali
6 April 2012[2][3]
• Recognition
Unrecognized
Time zoneUTC+0 (GMT)
• Summer (DST)
UTC+0 (Not observed)
Driving sideright[citation needed]
Calling code223[citation needed]

Template:Contains Tifinagh text Template:Contains Arabic text

Map of Azawad, as claimed by the MNLA: regions with Tuareg majority marked with dark grey dots, the west is mainly inhabited by Moors, the south by Sub-Saharan peoples

Azawad, also known as the Independent State of Azawad[3] (Tuareg: ⴰⵣⴰⵓⴰⴷ; Arabic: دولة أزواد المستقلة Dawlat Azawād al-Mustaqillah; French: État indépendant de l’Azawad[3]), is an unrecognised state that was unilaterally declared by the National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad in 2012 after a conflict which drove the Malian Army from the territory. Azawad comprises the Malian regions of Timbuktu, Kidal, Gao, as well as a part of Mopti region.[4] It borders Mali to the southwest, Burkina Faso to the south, Mauritania to the west and northwest, Algeria to the north, and Niger to the east and southeast. It straddles a portion of the Sahara and the Sahelian zone. Gao is its largest city and the MNLA's temporary capital.[5]

On 6 April 2012, in a statement posted to its website, the MNLA declared "irrevocably" the independence of Azawad from Mali. In Gao on the same day, Bilal Ag Acherif, the secretary-general of the movement, signed the Azawadi Declaration of Independence, which also declared the MNLA as the interim administrators of Azawad until a "national authority" is formed.[6] The proclamation has yet to be recognised by a foreign entity,[2] and even the MNLA's claim to have de facto control of the Azawad is disputed by both the government of Mali and the MNLA's former co-combatant, the Islamist group Ansar Dine.[7]

Etymology

According to Robert Brown, Azawad is an Arabic corruption of the Berber word "Azawagh", a dry river basin that covers western Niger, northeastern Mali, and southern Algeria.[8] The name translates to "land of transhumance".[9]

History

Mali and Songhai empires

In the early 14th century, the southern part of the region came under the control of the Mali Empire, including the peaceful annexation of Timbuktu by king Musa I in 1324, as he returned from his famous pilgrimage to Mecca.[10]

With the power of the Mali Empire waning in the first half of the 15th century, the area around Timbuktu became relatively autonomous, although Maghsharan Tuareg had a dominant position.[11] Thirty years later however, the rising Songhay Empire expanded in Gao, absorbing Timbuktu in 1468 or 1469 and much of the surrounding area. The city was led, consecutively, by Sunni Ali Ber (1468–1492), Sunni Baru (1492–1493) and Askia Mohammad I (1493–1528). Although Sunni Ali Ber was in severe conflict with Timbuktu after its conquest, Askia Mohammad I created a golden age for both the Songhay Empire and Timbuktu through an efficient central and regional administration and allowed sufficient leeway for the city's commercial centers to flourish.[11][12] With Gao the capital of the empire, Timbuktu enjoyed a relatively autonomous position. Merchants from Ghadames, Awjilah, and numerous other cities of North Africa gathered there to buy gold and slaves in exchange for the Saharan salt of Taghaza and for North African cloth and horses.[13] Leadership of the Empire stayed in the Askia dynasty until 1591, when internal fights weakened the dynasty's grip.[14]

Moroccan expedition

Following the Battle of Tondibi in a village just north of Gao, the city was captured on 30 May 1591 by an expedition of mercenaries and slaves, dubbed the Arma. They were sent by the Saadi ruler of Morocco, Ahmad I al-Mansur, and were led by Judar Pasha in search of gold mines. The sacking of Gao marked the effective end of the Songhai as a regional power.[15][16] The following period brought economic and intellectual decline,[17] as increasing trans-atlantic trade routes – transporting African slaves, including leaders and scholars of Timbuktu – marginalised Gao and Timbuktu's role as trade and scholarly centers.[18] While initially controlling the Morocco – Timbuktu trade routes, Morocco soon cut its ties with the Arma and the grip of the numerous subsequent pashas on Timbuktu began losing its strength: Tuareg temporarily took over control in 1737 and the remainder of the 18th century saw various Tuareg tribes, Bambara and Kounta briefly occupy or besiege the city.[19] During this period, the influence of the Pashas, who by then had mixed with the Songhay through intermarriage, never completely disappeared.[20]

The Massina Empire took control of Timbuktu in 1826, holding it until 1865, when they were driven away by El Hadj Umar Tall's Toucouleur Empire. Sources conflict on who was in control when the French arrived: Elias N. Saad in 1983 suggests the Soninke Wangara,[19] a 1924 article in the Journal of the Royal African Society mentions the Tuareg,[21] while Africanist John Hunwick does not determine one ruler, but notes several states competing for power 'in a shadowy way' until 1893.[22]

Under French rule

After European powers formalized the scramble for Africa in the Berlin Conference, land between the 14th meridian and Miltou, South-West Chad, became French territory, bounded in the south by a line running from Say, Niger to Baroua. Although the Azawad region was now French in name, the principle of effectivity required France to actually hold power in those areas assigned, e.g. by signing agreements with local chiefs, setting up a government and making use of the area economically, before the claim would be definitive. On 15 December 1893, Timbuktu, by then long past its prime, was annexed by a small group of French soldiers, led by Lieutenant Gaston Boiteux.[23] The region became part of French Sudan (Soudan Français), a colony of France. The colony was reorganised and the name changed several times during the French colonial period. In 1899 the French Sudan was subdivided and the Azawad became part of Upper Senegal and Middle Niger (Haut-Sénégal et Moyen Niger). In 1902 the name became Senegambia and Niger (Sénégambie et Niger) and in 1904 this was changed again to Upper Senegal and Niger (Haut-Sénégal et Niger). This name was used until 1920 when it became French Sudan again.[24]

Under Malian rule

Tuaregs at the January 2012 Festival au Désert in Timbuktu, just before the MNLA launched the Azawadi rebellion later in the same month

French Sudan became the autonomous state of Mali within the French Community in 1958, and Mali became independent from France in 1960. The area saw four major Tuareg rebellions against Malian rule: the First Tuareg Rebellion (1962–64), the rebellion of 1990-1995, the rebellion of 2007-2009, and a 2012 rebellion by the National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad (MNLA) and Ancar Dine.

In the early twenty-first century, the region became notorious for banditry and drug smuggling.[25] The area has been reported to contain a great deal of potential mineral wealth, including petroleum and uranium.[26]

On 17 January 2012, the MNLA announced the start of an insurrection in Azawad against the government of Mali, declaring that it "will continue so long as Bamako does not recognise this territory as a separate entity".[27]

In March 2012, the MNLA and Ancar Dine took control of the regional capitals of Kidal[28] and Gao[29] along with their military bases. On 1 April, Timbuktu was captured.[30] After the seizure of Timbuktu on 1 April, the MNLA gained effective control of most of the territory they claim for an independent Azawad. In a statement released on the occasion, the MNLA invited all Azawadis abroad to return home and join in constructing institutions in the new state.[31]

Unilaterally declared independence

See also: Azawad Declaration of Independence

The MNLA declared Azawad an independent state on 6 April 2012 and pledged to draft a constitution establishing it as a democracy. Their statement also acknowledged the United Nations charter and said the new state would uphold its principles.[2][32]

In an interview with France 24, an MNLA spokesman declared the independence of Azawad:

Mali is an anarchic state. Therefore we have gathered a national liberation movement to put in an army capable of securing our land and an executive office capable of forming democratic institutions. We declare the independence of Azawad from this day on.

— Moussa Ag Assarid, MLNA spokesman, 6 April 2012[33]

In the same interview, Assarid also promised that Azawad will "respect all the colonial frontiers that separate Azawad from its neighbours" and insisted that Azawad's declaration of independence has "some international legality".[33]

No foreign entity has yet recognized Azawad. The MNLA's declaration was immediately rejected by the African Union, who declared it "null and no value whatsoever". The French Foreign Ministry said it would not recognise the unilateral partition of Mali, but it called for negotiations between Bamako and Gao to address "the demands of the northern Tuareg population [which] are old and for too long had not received adequate and necessary responses". The United States also rejected the declaration of independence.[34]

The MNLA is estimated to have up to 3,000 soldiers. The ECOWAS declared Azawad "null and void," and said that Mali is "one and [an] indivisible entity." The ECOWAS has prepared a potential intervention force of 3,000 soldiers to restore order in southern Mali and contain the rebel forces. It said that it would use force, if necessary, to put down the rebellion.[35] The French government indicated it could provide logistical support.[34]

Geography

The local climate is desert or semi-desert. Reuters wrote of the terrain: "Much of the land is the Sahara desert at its most inhospitable: rock, sand dunes and dust scored by shifting tracks."[36] Some definitions of Azawad also include parts of northern Niger and southern Algeria, adjacent areas to the south and the north[37] though in its declaration of independence, the MNLA did not advance territorial claims on those areas.[3]

Politics

Azawad consists of the entire regions of Gao, Kidal, and Timbuktu, as well as the north-east half of the Mopti Region, which are claimed by and internationally recognised as part of Mali.

The MNLA in its declaration of independence announced the first political institutions of the state of Azawad. It included:[38]

  • An executive committee, directed by Mahmoud Ag Ghali.
  • A revolutionary council, directed by Abdelkrim Ag Tahar.
  • A consultative council, directed by Mahamed Ag Tahadou.
  • The general staff of the Liberation Army, directed by Mohamed Ag Najem.

As part of Mali, Azawad did not have a central government, and although the MNLA claimed responsibility for managing the country "until the appointment of a national authority" in their declaration of independence, it has acknowledged the presence of rival armed groups, including Islamist fighters under Ansar Dine, the Movement for Oneness and Jihad in West Africa, and Al Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb, in Azawad. The MNLA has yet to establish a formal government, though it has pledged to draft a constitution establishing Azawad as a democracy.[2] The main government building is called the Palace of Azawad by the MNLA. It is a heavily guarded building in central Gao that served as the office of the Gao Region's governor prior to the rebellion.[39]

The military wing of Ansar Dine rejected the MNLA's declaration of independence hours after it was issued.[40] Ansar Dine has vowed to establish Islamic sharia law over all of Mali.[41]

According to a Chatham House Africa expert, Mali is not to be considered "definitively partitioned". The sub-Saharan peoples that constitute a major share of the population of northern Mali, like Songhai and Fulani, would consider themselves to be Malian and have no interest in a separate Tuareg-dominated state.[42] On the day of the declaration of independence, about 200 Malian northerners staged a rally in Bamako, declaring their rejection of the partition and their willingness to fight to drive out the rebels.[43][44] One day later, a new rally against separatism was joined by 2000 protesters.[45]

Administrative divisions

Azawad, as proclaimed by the MNLA, includes the Malian regions of Gao, Timbuktu, Kidal, and the northeast half of Mopti. As such, it includes the important cities of Timbuktu, Gao and Kidal.[37]

Demographics

Timbuktu census in 1950
Gao census in 1950

Northern Mali has a population density of 1.5 person per square kilometre.[46] The Malian regions that are claimed by Azawad are listed hereafter. The population figures are from the 2009 census of Mali, taken before Azawadi independence was proclaimed.[47]

Region name Area (km2) Population
Gao 170,572 544,120
Kidal 151,430 67,638
Timbuktu 497,926 681,691
Northeast half of Mopti Unknown Unknown

Ethnic groups

The area was traditionally inhabited by Tuareg people, Moors, Songhay and Fulas (Fula: Fulɓe; French: Peul). In the 1950 census, nomads (Songhay, Moors, Tuareg people) accounted for up to 95% of the inhabitants.[48][citation needed]

Kidal, Gao, and Timbuktu also have a number of Bambara, who settled there mainly after the 1960s.[citation needed]

Languages

The languages of Azawad include Tamashek, Arabic, Fulfulde and Songhay.[49] Prior to the rebellion, Bambara was gradually increasing in the region but was not yet a major factor.[50]

Religion

Most are Muslims, of the Sunni or Sufi orientations.[citation needed]

See also

References

  1. ^ "Mali: A scramble for power". The Muslim News. 8 April 2012. Retrieved 8 April 2012.
  2. ^ a b c d "Tuareg rebels declare the independence of Azawad, north of Mali". Al Arabiya. 6 April 2012. Retrieved 6 April 2012.
  3. ^ a b c d "Déclaration d'indépendence de l'Azawad". Mouvement National de libération de l'Azawad. 6 April 2012. Retrieved 6 April 2012.
  4. ^ "Mali Tuareg rebels control Timbuktu as troops flee". BBC News. 1 April 2012. Retrieved 3 April 2012.
  5. ^ "Tuaregs claim 'independence' from Mali". Al Jazeera. 6 April 2012. Retrieved 6 April 2012. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); no-break space character in |date= at position 2 (help)
  6. ^ "Mali rebels declare independence in north". Times of India. 6 April 2012. Retrieved 6 April 2012.
  7. ^ J. David Goodman (6 April 2012). "Rift Appears Between Islamists and Main Rebel Group in Mali". The New York Times. Retrieved 7 April 2012.
  8. ^ Robert Brown (1896). Annotations to The history and description of Africa, by Leo Africanus. The Hakluyt Society. Retrieved 3 April 2012.
  9. ^ Germain B. Nama (1 March 2012). "Rebelles touaregs : "Pourquoi nous reprenons les armes…"". Courrier International (in French). Retrieved 5 April 2012.
  10. ^ Hunwick 2003, pp. 9–10.
  11. ^ a b Saad 1983, p. 11.
  12. ^ Fage 1956, pp. 27.
  13. ^ "Timbuktu". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved 5 November 2010. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  14. ^ Fage 1956, pp. 27–29.
  15. ^ Hunwick 2003, p. 192.
  16. ^ Kaba 1981.
  17. ^ Hunwick 2000, p. 508.
  18. ^ Pelizzo, Riccardo (2001). "Timbuktu: A Lesson in Underdevelopment" (PDF). Journal of World-Systems Research. 7 (2): 265–283. Retrieved 25 March 2010. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  19. ^ a b Saad 1983, p. 206-214.
  20. ^ Saad 1983, p. 206-209.
  21. ^ Maugham, R.C.F. (1924). "Native Land Tenure in the Timbuktu Districts". Journal of the Royal African Society. 23 (90). Oxford: Oxford University Press: 125–130. JSTOR 715389. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  22. ^ Hunwick 2003, p. xvi.
  23. ^ Hacquard 1900, p. 71; Dubois & White 1896, p. 358
  24. ^ Imperato 1989, pp. 48–49.
  25. ^ Une zone immense et incontrôlable aux confins du Sahara
  26. ^ "Le secteur minier du Mali, un potentiel riche mais inexploité". Les Journées Minières et Pétrolières du Mali. 2011. Retrieved 3 April 2012.
  27. ^ "The Renewal of Armed Struggle in Azawad". Mouvement National de libération de l'Azawad. 17 January 2012. Retrieved 2 April 2012.
  28. ^ "Mali coup: Rebels seize desert town of Kidal". BBC News. 30 March 2012. Retrieved 30 March 2012.
  29. ^ "Mali Tuareg rebels seize key garrison town of Gao". BBC News. 31 March 2012. Retrieved 1 April 2012.
  30. ^ Rukmini Callimachi (1 April 2012). "Mali coup leader reinstates old constitution". Associated Press. Retrieved 31 March 2012. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); no-break space character in |accessdate= at position 3 (help)
  31. ^ "Declaration du Bureau Politique" (in French). Mouvement National de libération de l'Azawad. 1 April 2012. Retrieved 2 April 2012.
  32. ^ Bate Felix (6 April 2012). "Mali rebels declare independence in north". Reuters. Retrieved 6 April 2012.
  33. ^ a b "Tuareg rebels declare independence in north Mali". France 24. 2012-04-06. Retrieved 2012-04-06.
  34. ^ a b Felix, Bate (6 April 2012). "AU, US reject Mali rebels' independence declaration". Reuters. Retrieved 7 April 2012.
  35. ^ "Azawad independence: ECOWAS calls declaration of Azawad independence 'null and void'". Afrique en Ligue. 7 April 2012. Retrieved 8 April 2012.
  36. ^ "FACTBOX-'Azawad': self-proclaimed Tuareg state". Reuters AlertNet. 6 April 2012. Retrieved 6 April 2012. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help); no-break space character in |accessdate= at position 2 (help); no-break space character in |date= at position 2 (help)
  37. ^ a b "Who are the Tuareg?". Al Jazeera. 14 July 2008. Retrieved 3 April 2012.
  38. ^ Salima Tlemçani (7 April 2012) "Le mali dans la tourmente : AQMi brouille les cartes à l’Azawad", El Watan.
  39. ^ "Malians protest against Azawad independence". The Telegraph. 6 April 2012. Retrieved 6 April 2012.
  40. ^ "Confusion in Mali after Tuareg independence claim". 6 April 2012. Retrieved 6 April 2012.
  41. ^ "Qaeda using Mali crisis to expand, France warns". Vision. 4 April 2012. Retrieved 6 April 2012.
  42. ^ "Rebels declare independent state", Herald Sun, April 07, 2012.
  43. ^ Felix, Bate (6 April 2012), "AU, US reject Mali rebels' independence declaration", Reuters
  44. ^ "Malians protest against Azawad independence". The New York Times. 7 April 2012. Retrieved 7 April 2012.
  45. ^ "Protests in Bamoko as Malians reject independence of North", Euronews, 8 April 2012
  46. ^ Mali - Population, Encyclopedia of the Nations, retrieved 2 April 2012
  47. ^ (In French.) "Resultats provisoires R.G.P.H. 2009" (Document). République de Mali: Institut National de la StatistiqueTemplate:Inconsistent citations {{cite document}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |url= ignored (help)CS1 maint: postscript (link).
  48. ^ File:Statistiques.JPG
  49. ^ "Languages of Mali". Ethnologue.com. Retrieved 6 April 2012.
  50. ^ Heath, Jeffrey (1999). A Grammar of Koyra Chiini: the Songhay of Timbuktu. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. KG. pp. 4–5.

Further reading

External links

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Azawad&oldid=486398241"